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Handbook of
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Nuts
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James A. Duke, Ph.D .
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0
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CRC Press
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Boca Raton London New York Washington, D.C.
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Cover image courtesy of
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T. Michael Kengla
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GrassRoots Productions
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
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Duke, James A., 1929-
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Handbook of nuts / author, James A. Duke.
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p. cm .- (Herbal reference library series)
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Rev. ed. of: CRC handbook of nuts, c l 989.
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Includes bibliographical references (p. ).
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ISBN 0-8493-3637-6 (alk. paper)
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1. Nuts-Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. Duke, James A., 1929- CRC handbook of nuts.
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II. Title. III. Series.
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SB401.A4 D84 2000
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634'.5—<lc21 00-049361
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This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reprinted material is quoted with
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permission, and sources are indicated. A wide variety of references are listed. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish
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reliable data and information, but the author and the publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials
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or for the consequences of their use.
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Neither this book nor any part may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical,
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including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or by any information storage or retrieval system, without prior
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permission in writing from the publisher.
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The consent of CRC Press LLC does not extend to copying for general distribution, for promotion, for creating new works,
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or for resale. Specific permission must be obtained in writing from CRC Press LLC for such copying.
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Direct all inquiries to CRC Press LLC, 2000 N.W. Corporate Blvd., Boca Raton, Florida 33431.
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Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for
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identification and explanation, without intent to infringe.
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1989
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First published by CRC Press LLC <1
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© 2001 by CRC Press LLC
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Publieshed by CRC
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270 Madison Ave, New York NY 10016
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2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, 0X 14 4RN
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Transferred to Digital Printing 2010
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Herbal Reference Library edition
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No claim to original U.S. Government works
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International Standard Book Number 0-8493-3637-6
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Library of Congress Card Number 00-049361
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Publisher’s Note
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The publisher has gone to great lengths to ensure the quality o f this reprint
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but points out that some imperfections in the original may be apparent.
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INTRODUCTION*
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Appropriately, one might commence a Handbook of Nuts with a definition of nut. But,
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if you’ll pardon the jargon, that’s a “ tough nut to crack.’’ To drive home my definition.
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I’ll here recount an anecdote. For several years I was peripherally embroiled in a controversy
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over that definition. Various people interested in the jojoba (Simmondsia chinensis) would
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call or write, hoping my definition would support their contention that the jojoba was or
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was not a nut.
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Finally, lawyers from the Internal Revenue Service (1RS) called and asked me to send
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my definition, in writing! I quote my cautious letter to the 1RS:
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I understand that the 1RS has special treatment for certain farmers raising fruits and nuts.
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I quote definitions from my favorite glossary, B. D. Jackson’s A Glossary of Botanic
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Terms, 4th ed., Hafner Publishing Company, New York, 1928, reprinted 1953:
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Nut: a hard indéhiscent one-seeded fruit.
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Fruit: (1) Strictly, the pericarp and its seeds, the fertilized and developed ovary.
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1 think the jojoba “ beans” would qualify just as well as the pecan as both a nut and a
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fruit, botanically speaking. There are popular concepts of the fruit as fleshy and/or wet, the
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nut as nonfleshy and/or dry. Relatively speaking, the jojoba is as dry as a pecan and popularly
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considered a nut. But botanically, a nut is just one kind of fruit. Hence, I conclude the jojoba
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bean is both a nut and a fruit from a botanical point of view.
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Ironically, 1RS definitions may make or break a nut species. Vietmeyer^^^ shows how an
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1RS ruling in 1969 withdrew a number of nut species, especially almond, from its list of
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speculative agricultural investments. “ Pistachios, however, remained an allowable tax write
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off. Suddenly alone it became a hot investment.’’ Vietmeyer calls this the unexpected source
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for the real advance into commercialization; e.g., Getty Oil, Superior Oil, and Tenneco
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West then invested in pistachios. By 1984 we had some 20,000 hectares pistachios and
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pushed Turkey out of the number 2 production spot. In 1985, Vietmeyer went even farther
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with his NRC report on jojoba,perhaps giving the jojoba more momentum. Tax advantages
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to the jojoba may hinge on whether or not it is defined as a nut. Who knows? Perhaps the
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future of the jojoba as a new crop may hinge on its definition.
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In 1985, I received a hasty call from an official of the Jojoba Grower’s Association,
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distressed by the 1RS interpretation of my letter quoted previously. The official enticed me
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to agree that, in common, if not botanical parlance, the words fruit and nut implied edibility.
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Here I quote the letter drafted (but never typed) to that official. Following conversations
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with other jojoba fans in the government, I feared the last half of the letter might jeopardize
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the future of the jojoba as a “ new crop’’. So few “ new crops’’ break through the economic
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catch 22 here in the U.S.! The farmer won’t grow it until industry provides a guaranteed
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market, and industry won’t generate a market until there’s a guaranteed source (the farmer).
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Enclosed is a copy of my letter of July 5, 1983 to the 1RS re jojoba. When asked by legal
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types how to define something, I like to quote published definitions, rather than inventing
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my own. Trained as a taxonomist, I resorted to Jackson’s glossary.H orticulturists might
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resort to other sources.
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It is true that the popular concepts of fruits and nuts with most people may imply edibility.
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Few, if any, modem Americans eat jojoba “ nuts.” I would have to agree with you. Dr. M.
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Faust, of USDA, and J. Janick, of Purdue University, that, if edibility is a prerequisite part
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of the definition of fruit or nut, jojoba is best not considered a nut.
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Expanded from talks presented at the Agricultural Marketing Workshop for the Caribbean Basin, Miami,
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Florida, September 24-27, 1984; and New Orleans, Louisiana, September 16-20, 1985.
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I realize that paragraph two is what you wanted to hear. Hence, I separate it from the
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following paragraph which, being something you may not wish to hear, can be extricated
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from the rest of my letter.
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Two books which I procured in preparing a draft Handbook of Nuts are Rosengarten’s The
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Book of Edible Nuts (Walker and Company, New York, 1984),^*^ and Menninger’s Edible
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Nuts of the World (Horticultural Books, Inc., Stuart, Florida, Menninger, who
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defines nut as “ any hardshelled fruit or seed of which the kernel is eaten by mankind” ,
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treats the jojoba as an edible nut, noting the Indian consumption and the vulgar names “ goat
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nut” and “ deer nut.” Rosengarten employs the word “ nut” “ in the broad and popular
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sense, covering a wide variety of fruits or seeds, some of which would not be classified as
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nuts according to strict botanical definition.” He groups jojoba among “ Thirty Other Edible
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Nuts” , adding as common names “ sheep nut” and “ pignut” . He says “ Its fruits and leaves
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are devoured with avidity by goats, sheep, and deer. Indians of the desert Southwest gathered
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jojoba nuts and ate them, raw or roasted; their flavor is reminisent of the hazelnut, but more
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bitter . . . Today the use ofjojoba nuts for human consumption is mainly of historic interest.”
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This paragraph of my letter reinforces my reluctance to disqualify jojoba, even in the popular
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concept “ nut.” I have tasted them raw, and find them about as unappealing as most acorns
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I have tried.
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Those seeking to exclude jojoba from the staid society of nuts might say that jojoba, an
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American species, is, with good reason, excluded from Woodruff’s Tree Nuts (2 vols., AVI
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Publishing Company, Westport, Connecticut, 1967^'^' and Jaynes Handbook of North Amer
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ican Nut Trees (NNGA, Knoxville, Tennessee, 1969).*'** My superficial examination of these
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revealed no definition of nut.
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For the record, I did send the following letter and poem that encapsulated my seedy
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feelings.
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Thanks for your letter of April 25, re the jojoba.
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While not fully understanding the tax implication of the Jackson (botanical) interpretation
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of the word “ nut” and “ fruit” , I surely agree with you that in common, rather than botanical
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parlance, the words fruit and nut imply edibility. Hence, the common parlance for an orchard
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of nuts would be a cultivated grove of trees or shrubs for their edible nuts. I don’t frankly
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believe that jojoba falls into that common concept.
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Hence, the botanical definition of nut is at variance with the popular definition of nut. I
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think jojoba is a fruit and/or nut according to Jackson’s technical definition, but not according
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to common parlance.
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Not a Nut?
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(The incredible inedible nut!!!)
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The Jojoba Growers’ Association
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Wishes, to my consternation.
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That I’d retract a note.
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That long ago I wrote
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For 1RS edification.
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I sent Jackson’s definition
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To the 1RS Commission
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I resorted to quote, but.
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Jojoba’s both fruit and nut.
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Which promotes the Growers’ dissension.
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I find it perfectly credible
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To define a “ nut” as an edible.
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But even that caveat
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Won’t change the fact that
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Its edible uses are negligible.
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Poets sometimes get in a rut,
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Nonpoetic lines, dry and cut.
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No amount of stink
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Will lead me to think
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The jojoba nut’s not a nut.
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My interpretation of the facts is
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Jojoba’s not good for the gut.
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And when you tally your taxes.
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The jojoba nut’s not a nut.
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Anonpoet
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April 29, 1985
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I have included in this book many species which are not true nuts. Unlike a one-seeded
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peanut, a peanut with two or three seeds in the indéhiscent pod is disqualified because it
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has more than one seed. But I excluded many nuts treated in my Handbook of Legumes of
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World Economic Im p o rta n c e There are many seeds in the Brazil nut pod, which rules
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them out (as one-seeded fruits). Similarly, there are many “ nuts” in the colas, included in
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this book, and many “ beans” in the cacao pod of the same family. Cacao is no further
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from the definition of nut than is cola. Cacao will be considered in the volume on Money
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Crops. As a matter of fact, nearly half the species in this book are not nuts in the narrowest
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sense: “ one-seeded indéhiscent fruits, the kernels of which are edible.”
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In 1984, I addressed the Agricultural Marketing Workshop (Miami) on subtropical and
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tropical nuts. The feedback I got from that first meeting suggested that I may have overdosed
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the audience with suggestions of nuts that might be grown in the tropics. There are hundreds
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of species that can be called nuts, by any of several possible definitions. And due to the
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overall higher species diversity in the tropics, there is a concomitant higher number of nut
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species available for consideration in the tropical environments with which we were con
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cerned.
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During that same year, CRC Press published Martin’s Handbook of Tropical Food Crops^^^
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just before I attended the Miami conference that presaged the New Orleans conference of
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the Agricultural Marketing Workshop. Carl Campbell’s^ excellent chapter on Fruits and
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Nuts gave a good overview of the cultivation of fruits and nuts, and included short treatises
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on the cashew, pili nut, brazil nut, breadfruit, coconut, oil palm, and lychee (really a fruit).
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In a summary table, he listed a few others, the monkey pot {Lecythis elliptica), the paradise
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nut {Lecythis zabucajo), the jackfruit {Artocarpus heterophylla), the salak {Salacca edulis),
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the peach palm {Bactris gasipaes), the macadamia {Macadamia integrifolia), and the jujube
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(Ziziphus mauritiana). Certain virtues were suggested for nut trees:
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Dietary diversity
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High oil content
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Luxury long-distance commercial markets
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Important to subsistence farmers
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Everbearing
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Low maintenance
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Intercropping potential
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Wood as byproduct
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Land stabilization
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Following my presentations, CRC advised me that they would publish this Handbook of
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Nuts. It was designed to contain information summaries on about 100 nut species, in the
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same format as my Plenum Handbook of Legumes of World Economic Importance (Plenum
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Press^^) with succinct paragraphs on Uses, Folk Medicine, Chemistry, Description, Germ-
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plasm, Distribution, Ecology, Cultivation, Harvesting, Yields and Economics, Energy, Biotic
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Factors.
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The following recommendations seem germaine to potential nut producers.
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1. Understand the crop and its requirements — take the principles of production and do
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good, replicated, semi-commercial research to adapt the crop to your own situations.
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2. Select growing areas where good production of a crop can be concentrated — secure
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large quantities of nuts to make an impact on the export market.
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3. Develop or choose the best varieties and disease-free planting stocks.
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4. Concentrate on producing high quality produce to ensure repeat sales.
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5. Time production so that it will not overlap competitor production, if any.
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6. Practice insect, disease, and pest control — consider quarantine and import regulations
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for the crop.
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7. Develop attractive and protective packaging that is distinctive and makes your product
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recognizable.
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8. Do not plant a tree until you’ve tentatively contracted a market. Many advanced
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technological studies concern temperate nuts and oil seeds.
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Chemical Business (CB) ran an article on Oleochemicals (Research Sparks Oleochemical
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Hopes).Oleochemicals are defined as the industrial products based on animal fats and
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vegetable oils, a $1.2 billion segment of the U.S. chemical industry (cf. nut imports worth
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ca. $300 million, 200 in brazil nuts, 50 in cashews).
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Unlike nuts, oleochemicals find their way into:
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1. The personal care product market (20%)
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2. Industrial lubricants and related products (14%)
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3. Coatings (10%)
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4. Detergent intermediates (10%)
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5. Plastics, alkyds, urethanes, cellophane, cleaners, detergents (18%)
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6. Textiles, emulsion, polymerization, rubber, asphalt, mining, miscellaneous
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In this handbook I treat both kinds of nuts, (1) the familiar nuts that we eat and (2) a few
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oleochemical or chemurgic nuts. Some of the chemurgic nuts of the tropics are tung and its
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relatives, purging nut, marking nut, jojoba, and some even more obscure species. I suspect
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more technological advances are emerging with oil palms than with edible nuts.
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Laurie acid is now obtained mainly from coconut oil and secondarily from palm kernel
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oil. Finding an alternative source of lauric acid has sparked much industry interest. Henkel
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Corporation is betting on palm kernel oil in the short run, “ in about 5 years, lauric acid
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from palm kernel oil will add about 75% to current s u p p lie s .W e use about 2 billion
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pounds of oleochemicals, which include fatty acids, surfactants, and other esters, amines,
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natural glycerins, natural alkanoamides, and primary amides and bisamides, at only $0.60
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per pound = 1% of U.S. Chemical Revenues.
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Exciting new technologies are being explored in the search for alternative sources of lauric
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acid. In the continental U.S., the technologies are directed more to temperate annuals than
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to tropical perennials, but potential is probably greater among tropical perennials which need
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not contend with winter. Some of the technologies do relate to tropical nuts. The kernel of
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the oil palm is a nut. Britain’s Unilever, and others, are propagating high-yielding oil palms
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and these are showing up in palm plantations. Such palms can produce more than ten times
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as much oil as the temperate soybean. Elsewhere I have speculated that 2 billion ha oilpalm
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yielding 25 barrels oil/ha could, with transesterification, support the world’s requirements
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for 50 billion barrels oil.^^®
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Meanwhile, back in the temperate zone, Calgene^^® is looking at Cuphea, an oilseed with
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low yields and other agronomic problems, but a crop which produces lauric acid, a short-
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chain fatty acid. “ Most oilseeds, including rapeseed, make long chain fatty acids (C-18 and
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up) . . . but . . . because the plants do not ‘know how’ to stop molecule chain growth,
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no midchain fatty acids, such as lauric acid, are produced by the plants . . . Some oilseed
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species such as cuphea do know how . . . Calgene scientists plan to isolate the gene or
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genes responsible and transfer them to rapeseed. Calgene has already overcome difficulties
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in introducing foreign genes into rapeseed and making the transformed rapeseed plants
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grow . . . Calgene researchers may be able to modify plants to produce whatever fatty acid
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is d esired.T hey “ expect to have a series of genes cloned and to be able to ‘mix-and-
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match’ genes in a low-cost production plant to produce custom-designed plants that produce
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specialty oils.’’ One potential of this research is the possibility of finding plant sources that
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can compete with petroleum feedstocks. Some Cuphea species synthesize the C-8 and C-
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10 fatty acids that could potentially replace petroleum based C-7 and C-9 fatty acids.
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An Ohio subsidiary of Lubrizol has developed a high-oleic acid sunflower with 80% oleic
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acid, up from the traditional 40%. They put in a 20,000 hectare crop of high-oleic acid
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sunflowers. Perhaps those interested in tropical nuts should look more to the pataua, Jessenia
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bataua, a tropical perennial producing perhaps 3 to 6 MT of oil with 80% oleic acid according
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to some authors. This oil has been favorably compared with olive oil, at a much lower
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price.
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So much for the annual cupheas, brassicas, and sunflower, the latter treated as a nut by
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both Menninger^^ and Rosengarten.^®^ None of the biotechnologies mentioned are unique
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to annuals; they can apply just as well to perennials. But it is easier to keep an annual
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proprietary. Perennials, once given to the world, can usually be clonally reproduced ad
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infinitum. Hence, I speculate that the world at large, especially the tropical world, would
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fare better if the new technologies were developed for perennial species, while the seed
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salesmen and gene-grabbers might fare better with annuals.
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Whether annual or perennial, plant sources of oleochemicals, or proteins, or pesticides,
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or drugs, always seem to suffer from one valid criticism. As Tokay (1985) notes, “ . . . the
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use of natural raw materials that are often inconsistent in composition from batch to batch
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causes processing headaches. In addition, most fractionation processes produce many by
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products and co-products, which are often difficult to sell.’’^^® Contrastingly, we read in
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Science, September 13, 1985, “ Whole plant utilization—extracting medicines, leaf proteins,
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vitamins, polyphenols, essential oils, and chemurgics, and using the residues for alcohol
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production for energy—could move us from the petrochemical to the phytochemical era,
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with the possible fringe benefits of slowing the ‘greenhouse effect’ and making us more
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self-sufficient.
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Balandrin and Klocke^^ indicate that much evidence shows that natural product research
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is still potentially less expensive and more fruitful (in terms of new prototype compounds
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discovered) than are large chemical synthesis programs.
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New technologies for better extraction of main products and co-products and by-products
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are rapidly coming on line. Work goes on with the transesterification of palm oil, which
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could effectively fuel the diesel needs of the world. In “ A Green World Instead of the
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Greenhouse’’,®^ one finds scores (yields in barrels oil equivalent per hectare) for several
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energy plants.
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Peachpalm 3 5 - 105
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Babassu 5-60
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Peanut 4,5,13
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Cassava 6,11,15— 45
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Castor 13 Purging nut 18
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Coconut 11,25 Rape 4,5
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Cottonseed 1 Sesame 8
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Date palm 10— 20 Soybean 2,2,6
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Eucalypt 76
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Sugarcane 13,15
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Melaleuca 76 Sunflower 4,6
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Nypa 30— 90
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Sweet potato 30— 90
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Oilpalm 24— 58 Tung 17
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Coconut is just one of the hundreds of palms which can be termed a nut. Oil-palms are
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also considered nuts, even by Menninger,^®^ if their seeds are edible. Botanically, many
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familiar palms might better be classified as drupes, but their energetic potential is noteworthy.
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In his survey of “ Amazonian Oil Palms of Promise” , Balick^^ notes that most oil palms
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have a high yield and produce one or both of the basic types of oil (kernel and pulp). These
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two types usually differ chemically. More importantly, “ Most of the palms would seem to
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be well adapted to underused agricultural lands in tropical areas, where climate or other
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factors preclude the cultivation of the more common oleaginous plants.
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||
The palms on people’s minds today include, besides the conventional coconut and oil
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palm, both sources of lauric acid, the babassu and the pataua. And then there’s another tree,
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the inche, not even a palm, attracting the attention of the oil-palm people.
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The jojoba, with which I opened my talk in 1984, is not even an oilseed, but a “ waxseed” .
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Since it is so important to my introduction, I have left it in this CRC Handbook of Nuts.
|
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Menninger, in his Edible Nuts of the WorlcP^ after noting that “ A thousand kinds of nuts
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||
in this world are hunted and eaten by hungry people” defines nut as “ any hard shelled fruit
|
||
or seed of which the kernel is eaten by man-kind.” He purports to exclude those nuts that
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||
never see the interior of the human stomach in his chapter, “ Not Nuts.”
|
||
Rosengarten, in The Book of Edible Nutsf^^ is more cautious, like me, mostly quoting
|
||
other definitions. Then he selects twelve important edible nuts and discusses their relation
|
||
to the various definitions. That discussion bears repeating:
|
||
Few botanical terms are used more loosely than the word ‘nut’. Technically, according to
|
||
Funk & Wagnalls Standard Encyclopedic College Dictionary (1968), a nut is ‘1. A dry fruit
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||
consisting of a kernel or seed enclosed in a woody shell; the kernel of such fruit, especially
|
||
when edible, as of the peanut, walnut, or chestnut; Bot. A hard, indéhiscent, one-seeded
|
||
pericarp generally resulting from a compound ovary, as the chestnut or acorn.’ (Indéhiscent
|
||
means that the seedcase does not split open spontaneously when ripe.) The nut has also been
|
||
described as a one-celled, one-seeded, dry fruit with a hard pericarp (shell); and, more
|
||
simply, as the type of fruit that consists of one edible, hard seed covered with a dry, woody
|
||
shell that does not split open at maturity. Only a fraction of so-called nuts— for example,
|
||
chestnuts, filberts, and acorns— answer this description. The peanut is not really a nut; it is
|
||
a legume or pod, like the split pea, lentil, or bean— ^but an indéhiscent one because the pod
|
||
does not split open upon maturing. The shelled peanut is a seed or bean. The edible seeds
|
||
of almonds, walnuts, pecans, pistachios, hickory nuts, and macadamia nuts are enclosed in
|
||
the hard stones of a drupe— like the stones of peaches, cherries, or plums. A drupe is a soft,
|
||
fleshy fruit with a spongy or fibrous husk, which may or may not split free from the inner
|
||
hard-shelled stone containing the seed. In plums and peaches, we eat the fleshy parts and
|
||
throw away the stones; but the fleshy part of the walnut, for example, is removed and
|
||
discarded, while the kernel of the stone— the nut — is eaten. The shell of a drupe nut, like
|
||
the walnut, corresponds to the hard, outer layer of the peach stone. The coconut is the seed
|
||
of a fibrous drupe. The Brazil nut is a seed with a hard seed coat, as is the pinon nut. Another
|
||
dry, indéhiscent fruit type is the achene— a small, thin shell containing one seed, attached
|
||
to the outer layer at one point only— as in the dandelion and buttercup. The sunflower seed
|
||
is an achene. A true nut resembles an achene, but it develops from more than one carpel
|
||
(female reproductive structure), is usually larger and has a harder, woody wall; e.g ., the
|
||
difference between the filbert nut and the sunflower achene.
|
||
In 1983/84, the U.S. imported nuts worth $305 million per year, with $216 million in
|
||
brazil nuts, and $55 million in cashews, cf. $233 with $159 and $46, respectively, in
|
||
1982/83"» (Table 1).
|
||
Table 1
|
||
DATA ON AN IMPORTANT DOZEN NUTS
|
||
Import Per cap.
|
||
u.s. costs
|
||
consumption Price Oil
|
||
production annual
|
||
(shelled) per percentage
|
||
1980 1983—84
|
||
I960—J 079 pound (APB)
|
||
(1,000 tons)- (million $)^ ($)-
|
||
(lbs)-
|
||
Almonds 260
|
||
0.45 1.75 54.2
|
||
Brazil nuts 216
|
||
1.65 66.9
|
||
Cashew
|
||
55 2.15 45.7
|
||
Chestnut
|
||
1.65 1.5
|
||
Coconut
|
||
0.50 .65 35.3
|
||
Filbert 15
|
||
0.08 1.40 62.4
|
||
Macadamia 15
|
||
0.033 5.50 71.6
|
||
Peanut
|
||
7.1 .65 47.5
|
||
Pecan
|
||
92 0.30 2.75 71.2
|
||
Pistachio
|
||
14 3.30 53.7
|
||
Sunflower
|
||
.55 47.3
|
||
Walnut (Persian)
|
||
197 0.50 2.00 64.0
|
||
“ Rosengarten.^*^
|
||
Gyawa.**^
|
||
In 1980, the U.S. produced on an in-shell basis, ca.260,(XX) tons almonds, 197,(X)0 tons
|
||
walnuts, 92,(XX) tons pecans, 15,(X)0 tons filberts, 15,(X)0 tons macadamia, and 14 tons
|
||
pistachios, for a total approximating 600,000 MT nuts production. Of these, it might be
|
||
noted that only 92,OCX) (the pecans) were from a native American species.
|
||
Here we see a parallel with the other major groups of crops; North America has not
|
||
contributed much to America’s foodbasket. “ Of all the horticultural products given by our
|
||
continent to civilization, none are of more importance than the pecan, nor destined to play
|
||
a more vital role in our pomological future.’’ Moreover, a great slave, Antoine, of the Oak
|
||
Valley Plantation, in Louisiana, is accredited with our most important contribution to the
|
||
nut basket. “ The slave Antoine had thus laid the foundation upon which was to be erected
|
||
a great industry . . .
|
||
Mostly maturing in fall, the temperate zone nuts are extremely rich in calories. Rosengarten
|
||
notes that one pound of nut kernels (assuming 3,000 calories of fuel value per pound) is
|
||
equivalent in energy value to about 2.4 lbs breads, 3.2 lbs steak, 8 lbs potato, or 10.4 lbs
|
||
apple.Oils of the temperate zone are higher in unsaturated fatty acids in general, than
|
||
oils from the tropics like the palm oils, brazil nut, cashew, etc. It is rather well known that
|
||
the unsaturated fats are more healthy than the saturated. It is not so well known that you
|
||
could clone a pecan, grow it in a cold and a hot locale, and have a higher unsaturated profile
|
||
at the colder locale. In other words, the oils from the tropics will, in general, be less healthy
|
||
than those from the temperate zone. Perhaps we should raise our edible oils in the temperate
|
||
zone and our fuel oils in the tropics. But save the pilis, cashews, and brazil nuts for the
|
||
palates they please so well.
|
||
Rosengarten adds that “ Most nuts are an excellent source of calcium, phosphorus, iron,
|
||
potassium, and the B vitam ins.T his is true on an as-purchased basis, because nuts
|
||
contain so little water. On a zero-moisture basis (Table 2), the nuts do not seem particularly
|
||
outstanding with these nutrients. Some of the more familiar nuts are compared in Table 3.
|
||
|
||
THE AUTHOR
|
||
James A. “Jim” Duke, Ph.D. is a Phi Beta Kappa graduate of the University of North
|
||
Carolina, where he received his Ph.D. in Botany. He then moved on to postdoctoral
|
||
activities at Washington University and the Missouri Botanical Gardens in St. Louis,
|
||
Missouri, where he assumed professor and curator duties, respectively. He retired from the
|
||
United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) in 1995 after a 35-year career there and
|
||
elsewhere as an economic botanist. Currently he is Senior Scientific Consultant to Nature’s
|
||
Herbs (A Twin Labs subsidiary), and to an on-line company, ALLHERB.COM.
|
||
Dr. Duke spends time exploring the ecology and culture of the Amazonian Rain Forest and
|
||
sits on the board of directors and advisory councils of numerous organizations involved in
|
||
plant medicine and the rainforest. He is updating several of his published books and refining
|
||
his on-line database, http://www.ars-grin.gov/dukeA still maintained at the USDA. He is also
|
||
expanding his private educational Green Farmacy Garden at his residence in Fulton,
|
||
Maryland.
|
||
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS (Conceptualization)
|
||
Herb Strum, Agricultural Marketing Specialist, USDA, triggered all this when he called
|
||
and asked if I knew anyone who could address his Agricultural Marketing Workshops on
|
||
tropical nuts. The next thing you know, I became the speaker without portfolio. Since these
|
||
nuts are high-priced, light-weight, often labor-intensive crops, it was only natural that I
|
||
should view the nuts as possible alternative crops for narcotics. For their support in my
|
||
alternative crops program, I am indebted to the USDA’s Dr. T. J. Army, Deputy Admin
|
||
istrator, National Program Staff, Beltsville, Maryland; Dr. W. A. Centner, Research Leader,
|
||
Weed Science Laboratory, ARS, BARC, Beltsville, Maryland, and Quentin Jones, Assistant
|
||
to Deputy Administrator for Germplasm (now retired). National Program Staff, Beltsville,
|
||
Maryland.
|
||
In the preparation for these talks, I called on those more knowledgeable to help me decide
|
||
what should be discussed in papers on Tropical Nuts. I sent these fine correspondents the
|
||
crude check list, as follows:
|
||
TROPICAL NUTS
|
||
Anacardium occidentale
|
||
Cashew
|
||
Artocarpus altilis (A. communis)
|
||
Breadfruit
|
||
Bauhinia esculenta (Tylosema esculentum)
|
||
Marama nut or bean
|
||
Bertholettia excelsa
|
||
Brazil nut
|
||
Buchanania latifolia (lanza)
|
||
Cudapah almond or cuddapaha almond or Chironji nut
|
||
Canarium indicum
|
||
Java almond
|
||
Caryocar nuciferum
|
||
Suari nut
|
||
Caryodendron
|
||
Inchi nut
|
||
Cordeauxia edulis
|
||
Jeheb nut, ye-eb nut
|
||
Irvingia gabonensis
|
||
Dika nut
|
||
Lecythis ollaria
|
||
Sapucaja nut
|
||
Lecythis minor
|
||
Lecythis zabucajo
|
||
Paradise nut
|
||
Licania rigida
|
||
Oiticica
|
||
Macadamia spp.
|
||
Macadamia nut
|
||
Omphalea megacarpa
|
||
Hunter’s nut
|
||
Ongokea klaineana
|
||
Isano nut
|
||
Palaquium burukii
|
||
Siak illipe nut
|
||
Pangium edule
|
||
Pangi nut
|
||
Poga oleosa
|
||
Oboga nut
|
||
Ricinodendron heudelotii
|
||
Essang nut
|
||
Sclerocarya cajfra
|
||
Manila nut
|
||
Sterculia chicha
|
||
Maranhao nut
|
||
Terminaba catappa
|
||
Indian almond
|
||
Terminaba okara
|
||
Okari nut
|
||
Telfairia pedata
|
||
Oyster nut
|
||
Omit:
|
||
Jojoba
|
||
Coconut
|
||
Chestnut, water
|
||
Cola nut
|
||
Chufa or Tiger nut
|
||
Peanut
|
||
Groundnut
|
||
Litchi nut
|
||
Frank Martin added the jackfruit {Artocarpus integer) and the champedak (Artocarpus
|
||
heterophylla), emphasizing that they were distinct species. He also added Aleurites triloba
|
||
Forst, one of the many candle nuts, stating that it is edible when roasted. Further, he added
|
||
the palmyra palm {Borassus flabellifer L.), Gnetum gnemon (adding that it is excellent),
|
||
and Telfairia occidentalism another oystemut. He challenged my exclusion of the coconut,
|
||
and cautioned that Sterculia chicha contains a poisonous cyclopropenoid fatty acid.
|
||
Gerardo Budowski, of CATIE, added Salacca edulis, which is very important in Indonesia,
|
||
often served at receptions. After he consulted Menninger, he queried how worthwhile are
|
||
some of the nuts. If you listen to Menninger, all kinds of things are nuts, and may be
|
||
delicious — to some, such as a large group of palms.
|
||
So I wrote to palm specialist Dennis Johnson, and sent him the list of the more than 50
|
||
genera of palms that Menninger had included in this books. Dennis seemed comfortable
|
||
with leaving these in a talk on nuts and added Areca, which Menninger excluded because
|
||
it was not ingested, and the Pacific ivory nut, Coelococcus.
|
||
Harold Winters, retired USDA author of Kennard and Winters, Some Fruits and Nuts for
|
||
the T r o p ic s ,also added several species to my list.
|
||
Bob Knight, of the USDA Station at Miami, reminded me of the double meaning of
|
||
breadnut (1) as the nut of Brosimum alicastrum, also known as Maya Breadnut, and (2) as
|
||
a seeded breadfruit. Bob also Aleurites moluccana as a chemurgic nut, and Castanopsis
|
||
as an edible. He reminded me of the unfortunate consequences of overeating seleniferous
|
||
species of the Lecithidaceae.
|
||
Carl Campbell, also of Florida, added Brosimum too, with the Pili Nut (Canarium ovatum)
|
||
and the Malabar chestnut (Pachira macrocarpa). He reminded me, as did Julia Morton and
|
||
Bob Knight, that the pangi nut and the oiticica were “ toxic(?)” and “ hardly edible” ,
|
||
respectively. They are right.
|
||
Ernie Imle, retired USDA cacao specialist, sent literature ranking the pili nut, Canarium
|
||
ovatum, up with the macadam and cashew. He mentioned that several lines of pili were
|
||
established at La Zamorana, Honduras.
|
||
Julia Morton added the jackfruit Artocarpus heterophylla, the breadnut, Brosimum ali
|
||
castrum, the quandong, Fusanus acuminatus, the Tahiti chestnut, I nocarpus edulis, and the
|
||
Saba nut, or Pachira aquatica, and included data on these and other nut species which I
|
||
have incorporated in my write-ups on these species. She also added her acuminate capsular
|
||
reviews of Menninger’s and Rosengarten’s books and equally acuminate warnings on other
|
||
of our nut species.
|
||
I also acknowledge the help of Jayne Maclean, National Agricultural Library, who went
|
||
through a list of tropical nuts to check how many citations there were in her computerized
|
||
search. The tabulation which follows, with the number of “ hits” , might suggest the relative
|
||
importance of the tropical nuts in the literature:
|
||
162 Anacardium occidentale 0 Omphalea megacarpa
|
||
22 Artocarpus altilis or communis 0 Ongokea klaineana ( = O. gore)
|
||
2 Bauhinia esculenta 1 Palaquium
|
||
24 Bertholettia excelsa 0 Pangium edule
|
||
2 Buchanania latifolia 0 Pogo oleosa
|
||
2 Licania rigida
|
||
0 Canarium indicum
|
||
0 Ricinodendron sp.
|
||
0 Caryocar nuciferum
|
||
0 Sclerocarya caffra
|
||
0 Caryodendron sp.
|
||
1 Sterculia chicha
|
||
1 Irvingia gabonensis
|
||
8 Terminalia catappa
|
||
3 Cordeauxia edulis
|
||
0 Telfairia pedata
|
||
0 Lecithis ollaria
|
||
0 Lecithis zabucajo
|
||
My wife, Peggy, has helped in gathering and touching up illustrations, some in the public
|
||
domain, some being redrawn and reproduced here with the permission of the artist and/or
|
||
publishers. She has gone to the libraries and herbaria around Washington to seek out illus
|
||
trations, or specimens with which to improve on the quality of the illustrations herein. She
|
||
is responsible for those drawings bearing her name. Last and most, my thanks go to my
|
||
program assistant, Judy duCellier, who helped compile information into format from several
|
||
disparate sources. Not only has she learned to read my handwritten annotations and seek
|
||
out data from obscure sources, she has been good enough to type the manuscript as well.
|
||
In the civil service system, the very fact that she types the data she helped gather may
|
||
jeopardize her promotion potential. Take this as my letter of recommendation.
|
||
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS (Procedure and format)
|
||
For conventional nut species, I was immensely aided by a USDA contract with Dr. C.
|
||
F. Reed,^^® who prepared rough drafts on description, uses, varieties, distribution, ecology,
|
||
cultivation, economics, yields, and biotic factors of 1000 economic species. I was responsible
|
||
for the drafts of the nonconventional species reviewed herein as nuts, and Judy duCellier
|
||
and I edited, updated, and augmented the Reed drafts on the conventional species. Certain
|
||
major sources constituted the major documentation for Dr. Reed’s early drafts and my final
|
||
drafts.
|
||
For the Use paragraph, the major references were Bailey,Bogdan,^^ Brown,Brown
|
||
and Merrill,Burkill,^^ C.S.I.R.,"^® Dalziel,^^ Hortus MacMillan,Martin
|
||
and Ruberte,^®^ Uphof,^^"^ and many others. Often in this or other paragraphs I have internally
|
||
cited the Chemical Marketing Reporter,a weekly tabloid with much useful information.
|
||
For the Folk Medicine paragraphs, primary resources were Boulos,"^^ C.S.I.R.,"^® Duke,®®
|
||
Duke and Ayensu,^ Duke and Wain,^^ Hartwell,Kirtikar and Basu,^^^ List and Horham-
|
||
mer,^®^ M o rto n ,P e rry ,a n d Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk.^^^
|
||
For the Chemistry paragraph, the major references were C.S.I.R.,^® Duke,®^ Duke and
|
||
Atchley,®^ Gibbs,Gohl,^^® Leung et al.,^®^ List and Horhammer,^®^ and Morton.
|
||
For the Description paragraph, various floras were consulted in addition to the prime
|
||
references, Kirtikar and Basu,^^^ Little,^®® Ochse,^^® Radford, Ahles, and Bell,^^^ and Reed.^^®
|
||
For the Germplasm paragraph, the major references were Duke,®^ Reed,^^® and Zeven
|
||
and Zhukhovsky;^^® for the Distribution paragraph, various floras. Holm et al.,^^'^ Little,^®®
|
||
and for the Ecology paragraph, C.S.I.R.,^® Duke,®^ Holm et al.,^^^ Little,^®® and
|
||
(While ecological amplitudes were available for many of these nuts from Duke,®^^
|
||
in other cases I amplified the Duke data from other sources. For yet other species with no
|
||
hard data, I estimated ecological magnitudes.)
|
||
For the Cultivation and Harvesting paragraphs, C.S.I.R.,^® Purseglove,^^^
|
||
Reed^® were consulted; for the Yields and Economics paragraph, Bogdan,"^^ Duke,®^ FAO,^®
|
||
and Reed;^® for the Energy paragraph, Channel,^^ Duke,®^ NAS,^^^ and Westlake;^^"^ for the
|
||
Biotic Factors paragraph, Browne,^^ and Agriculture Handbook No. IbS,"* were the primary
|
||
references. Dr. C. F. Reed went through some USDA mycology files^®^ for those on which
|
||
he cooperated. These names have not all been verified. In the Biotic Factor or Cultivation
|
||
paragraph, there may be bibliographic mention of pesticides. In no way do I imply acceptance
|
||
or rejection of a pesticide by inclusion or omission. I have merely recited items that may
|
||
be of interest to those seeking information on pesticides.
|
||
I have omitted several “ nuts” included in my Handbook of Legumes of World Economic
|
||
Importances^ I have added other legumes, e.g., the groundnut, Apios (not really a nut, but
|
||
a root), and the yeheb, the tallownut, which were not covered in the handbook. I rank Apios
|
||
with the promising, yet still undeveloped, new crops of the New World.
|
||
Warning — Although I have compiled from the literature folk medicinal applications for
|
||
some of these nut species, neither I nor my publishers endorse or even suggest self diagnosis
|
||
or herbal medication. The folk medicinal information was compiled from open literature,
|
||
and I cannot vouch for its safety nor efficacy. As a matter of fact, I suspect some folk
|
||
medicinal applications are both dangerous and inefficacious.
|
||
TABLE OF CONTENTS
|
||
Acrocomia sclerocarpa............................. 1 Corylus maxima...................................... 130
|
||
Coula edulis.............................................131
|
||
Acrocomia total..........................................3
|
||
Cycas circinalis...................................... 133
|
||
Adhatoda vasica........................................5
|
||
Cycas revoluta........................................135
|
||
Aleurites fordii........................................... 8
|
||
Cycas rumphii......................................... 137
|
||
Aleurites moluccana..................................12
|
||
Cyperus esculentus................................. 139
|
||
Aleurites montana.....................................14
|
||
Cyperus rotundas.....................................142
|
||
Amphicarpaea bracteata........................... 16
|
||
Detarium senegalense.............................145
|
||
Anacardium occidentale........................... 19
|
||
Elaeis guineensis.....................................147
|
||
Apios americana...................................... 22
|
||
Elaeis oleifera......................................... 152
|
||
Areca catechu...........................................26
|
||
Eleocharis dulcís.....................................154
|
||
Arenga pinnata......................................... 30
|
||
Fagus grandifolia...................................157
|
||
Artocarpus altilis...................................... 34
|
||
Fagus sylvatica........................................160
|
||
Artocarpus heterophyllus......................... 37
|
||
Ginkgo biloba......................................... 163
|
||
Balanites aegyptiaca................................40
|
||
Gnetum gnemon...................................... 166
|
||
Barringtonia procera................................43
|
||
Helianthus annuus...................................168
|
||
Bertholletia excelsa...................................44
|
||
Hyphaene thebaica................................. 173
|
||
Borassus flabellifer...................................47
|
||
Inocar pus edulis...................................... 175
|
||
Brosimum alicastrum................................50
|
||
Jatropha curcas...................................... i l l
|
||
Brosimum utile......................................... 53
|
||
Jessenia bataua...................................... 180
|
||
Bruguiera gymnorrhiza.............................55
|
||
Juglans ailanthifolia................................184
|
||
Buchanania lanzan...................................57
|
||
Juglans cinerea........................................186
|
||
Butyrospermum paradoxum.....................59
|
||
Juglans hindsii........................................189
|
||
Calamus rotang........................................62
|
||
Juglans nigra...........................................190
|
||
Canarium indicum.....................................65
|
||
Juglans regia...........................................194
|
||
Canarium ovatum.....................................67
|
||
Lecythis minor......................................... 198
|
||
Carya illinoiensis...................................... 69
|
||
Lecythis ollaria....................................... 200
|
||
Caryocar amygdaliferum......................... 73
|
||
Lecythis pisonis......................................202
|
||
Caryocar nuciferum................................. 74
|
||
Licania rigida.........................................204
|
||
Caryocar spp.............................................75
|
||
Macadamia spp....................................... 207
|
||
Caryodendron orinocense........................78
|
||
Madhuca longifolia................................. 210
|
||
Castanea crenata...................................... 80
|
||
Moringa oleifera.................................... 214
|
||
Castanea dentata...................................... 82
|
||
Nelumbo nucífera...................................218
|
||
Castanea mollissima................................. 85
|
||
Nypa fruticans......................................... 222
|
||
Castanea pum ila...................................... 88
|
||
Orbignya cohune.................................... 224
|
||
Castanea sativa........................................90
|
||
Orbignya spp...........................................225
|
||
Castanospermum australe........................93
|
||
Pachira aquatica.................................... 229
|
||
Ceiba pentandra........................................96
|
||
Paullinia cupana.................................... 231
|
||
Cocos nucífera........................................100
|
||
Phytelephas macrocarpa....................... 234
|
||
Cola acuminata......................................107
|
||
Pinus edulis............................................ 236
|
||
Cola nitida..............................................110
|
||
P inus quadrifolia.................................... 238
|
||
Cola verticillata...................................... 113
|
||
Pistacia vera...........................................240
|
||
Cordeauxia edulis...................................114
|
||
Pittosporum resiniferum.........................244
|
||
Corylus americana................................. 116
|
||
Platonia esculenta...................................247
|
||
Corylus avellana.................................... 119
|
||
Prunus dulcis...........................................249
|
||
Corylus chinensis.................................... 123
|
||
Quercus súber.........................................253
|
||
Corylus colurna...................................... 124
|
||
Ricinodendron heudelotii....................... 256
|
||
Corylus cornuta...................................... 126
|
||
Ricinodendron rautanenii....................... 258
|
||
Corylus ferox...........................................128
|
||
Santalum acuminatum............................ 260
|
||
Corylus heterophylla.............................. 129
|
||
..262 Trapa spp............................................... 284
|
||
Treculia africana................... ................287
|
||
..266
|
||
Virola sebifera...................... .............. 290
|
||
..269
|
||
..272 Virola surinamensis.............. .............. 292
|
||
..276 References.............................. ................293
|
||
Figure Credits....................................... 307
|
||
..278
|
||
.............. 311
|
||
Index ......................................
|
||
..281
|
||
1
|
||
ACROCOMIA SCLEROCARPA Mart. (ARCEACEAE) — Gru-Gru Nut, Coco de Catarro,
|
||
Macauba, Mucaja
|
||
Syn.: Acrocomia aculeata (Jacq.) Lodd.
|
||
P D»-».We,
|
||
Uses — The slimy, soft external tissue (mesocarp) and the seed yield oil. The mesocarp
|
||
oil can be used as cooking oil, without refining, if extracted from fresh or properly stored
|
||
fruits. The mesocarp oil is also used for soaps. The kernel oil, with a sweet taste like coconut
|
||
oil, is used as an edible oil, e.g., in the preparation of margarine.
|
||
Folk medicine — Sometimes used as a purgative and vermifuge.
|
||
Chemistry — Seed contains 60% fat with 17% saturated fatty acids (74.6% oleic acid
|
||
and 8% linoleic acid). Fruit contains 4.58 mg carotene per 100 g fresh weight. Flowers
|
||
contain 2.1% gallic acid and tannin.According to Balick,^^ air-dried kernels yield 53 to
|
||
65 (to 69.4%), pulp up to 63.7% fat. The yellow pulp oil is softer and has a higher iodine
|
||
value than palm oil, but, unfortunately, hydrolyzes rapidly after harvested, especially if
|
||
damaged, like the oil palm. Johnson^^^ says that fresh fruits contain 35% moisture; dry fruit
|
||
mesocarp yields 33% oil, the kernel 53.75%.
|
||
Description — Armed palm to 11 m tall. Leaves pinnate, armed, like the trunk. Inflo
|
||
rescence with very sharp fine spines. Fruit a reddish-yellow edible drupe surrounded by a
|
||
tough woody kernel. Dry fruits weigh about 18 g, with 19.8% outer shell, 41.1% mesocarp
|
||
pulp, 29.0% inner shell, and 10.1% kernel.
|
||
Germplasm — Reported from the South American Center of Diversity, gru-gru is reported
|
||
to tolerate drought.
|
||
Distribution — Widely dispersed in Brazil, especially in Minas Gerais, where it grows
|
||
in dense groves. Ranging into Paraguay.
|
||
Ecology — Estimated to range from Tropical Wet to Dry through Subtropical Wet to Dry
|
||
Forest Life Zones, gru-gru nut is estimated to tolerate annual precipitation of 10 to 40 dm.
|
||
Handbook of Nuts
|
||
annual temperature of 22 to 28°C, and pH of 6 to 8. Sometimes gregarious in dense groves.
|
||
In Johnson,Balick notes this palm occurs in drier regions than most palms, and therefore
|
||
might be a useful economic plant in the dry areas.
|
||
Cultivation — Usually not cultivated.
|
||
Harvesting — Balick^^ notes the following, for oil palms in general, not necessarily for
|
||
this species. “ In commercial production, palm fruits first are harvested and removed from
|
||
the panicles upon which they are formed. Sterilization is next, to inactivate the enzymes
|
||
present in the mesocarp. These enzymes can cause deterioration of the oil through lipolysis,
|
||
an increase of the free fatty acid content known commercially as rancidity. A so-called
|
||
“ hard oil” , with up to 94.5% free fatty acids, is made by fermenting rather than sterilizing
|
||
the ripe palm fruits. Sterilization also stops oxidation, which lowers the bleachability of the
|
||
oil and makes it less valuable for commercial use. The fruits are then macerated to separate
|
||
the oily pulp from the kernels. In small-scale, local production, natives may pound the fruits
|
||
with a log or stone to release the pulp. On a large plantation, special machinery is used.
|
||
To release the oil, this pulpy mass is pressed with a hand press, if primitively processed,
|
||
or with heavy mechanical presses if on an industrial scale. Clarification follows: in a small
|
||
operation, the oil is allowed to rise through a layer of boiling water and is then skimmed
|
||
off. Large processing factories use a settling and centrifuge process. For commercial use,
|
||
the oil is usually bleached, removing certain natural red or green pigments. These colors
|
||
may lower the monetary value of the oil.
|
||
Kernels of some species of palms are often saved for their oil as a by-product of primitive
|
||
fruit processing. These are then shipped to mills located in central areas, where heavier
|
||
equipment is used for extraction. Natives in the past and today extract palm kernel oil by
|
||
baking the kernels in an oven and pounding them in hollow logs. The resulting mash is
|
||
boiled in pots with water, and the oil is collected as it rises to the top. Palm kernel cake,
|
||
a product of the extraction, is a good protein source and may be used for either human
|
||
consumption or as an animal feed.^^
|
||
Yields and economics — Small local Brazilian establishments develop the oils, which
|
||
are little known in the world market. Brazil produced small quantities of the oil before and
|
||
during World War II. In 1980, Brazilian production was limited to three States: Maranhao,
|
||
Ceara, and Minas Gerais, producing only 190 tons.^^^
|
||
Energy — The oil could be used like that of other oil palms for energy, the press-cake
|
||
for alcohol production or animal feed. An 18 g fruit would yield ca. 2.4 g mesocarp oil and
|
||
1 g kernel oil.^^^
|
||
Biotic factors — No data available.
|
||
ACROCOMIA TOTAI Mart. (ARECACEAE) — Gru-Gru Nut, Paraguay Coco-Palm, Mbocaya
|
||
Uses — Since pre-Colombian times, this palm has, with Copernicia australis (most
|
||
abundant palm in Paraguay), supplied food, shelter, and the raw material for fabrication of
|
||
soaps, hats, ropes, baskets, bags, hammocks, and mats. In Argentina, it is regarded as an
|
||
ornamental palm with edible nuts. Leaves are sometimes lopped for fodder in the dry season.
|
||
The “ cabbage” and base of the involucral leaves are eaten in salads. Ripe fruits are edible
|
||
and tasty. Five industrially useful products are obtainable: pulp oil, kernel oil, kernel meal,
|
||
kernel cake, and extracted pulp. The kernel oil is most valuable and abundant, usable for
|
||
soap and food.^^
|
||
Folk medicine — No data available.
|
||
Chemistry — Per 100 g, the mesocarp is reported to contain 4.3 g H2O, 4.2 g protein,
|
||
27.9 g fat, 4.8 g total sugars, 8.8 g fiber, 10.32 g ash, 90 mg Ca, 120 mg P, and 2,180
|
||
mg K. Other data are tabulated in Markley.^^^ (See Tables 1 and 2).
|
||
Description — Monoecious palm to 15 (to 20) m tall, the stipe provided with stout spines,
|
||
some 7.5 to 12.5 (to 17) cm long. Leaves pinnate, 2 to 3 m long, individual leaflets 50 to
|
||
70 cm long; petiole with spines on the dorsal surface. Spadix interfoliar, 1 m long, like the
|
||
inner spathe densely spinose. Fruits yellow, rounded, ca. 3 to 4 cm diam. with dark orange
|
||
oily pulp, rich in carotene.
|
||
Germplasm — Reported from the South American (Paraguayan) Center of Diversity,
|
||
mbocaya, or cvs thereof, is reported to tolerate savannas. Some trees are almost devoid of
|
||
spines, except just below the crown.
|
||
Distribution — Higher altitude savannas in Argentina and Paraguay.
|
||
Ecology — Estimated to range from Tropical Very Dry to Wet through Subtropical Wet
|
||
to Dry Forest Life Zones, mbocaya is estimated to tolerate annual precipitation of 8 to 35
|
||
dm, annual temperature of 22 to 28°C, and pH of 6 to 8.
|
||
Cultivation — Markley^^^ calculates yield, at 10 x 4 m spacing (250 trees/ha) at 640
|
||
kg oil/ha, at 10 X 6 (166 trees) at 424 kg/ha, at 10 x 8 (125 trees) at 320 kg/ha, and at
|
||
10 X 10 (100 trees/ha) at 256 kg oil/ha. Markley’s information suggests that the seeds
|
||
might be as recalcitrant as those of oil palms.
|
||
Harvesting — Humans usually eat only the pulp of freshly fallen fruits owing to the
|
||
difficulty of extracting the kernels. Nature (decay and/or defecation, followed by rains) often
|
||
leaves clean nuts lying on the ground, to be harvested by humans. Leaves are sometimes
|
||
lopped to leave only two in the dry season.
|
||
Yields and Economics — The mbocaya palm is of greater economic importance to
|
||
Paraguay than any other indigenous palm. Between 1940 and 1951, Paraguay produced 883
|
||
to 2,849 MT of kernel oil annually, exporting 13 to 2,588, and 170 to 1,125 MT pulp oil,
|
||
exporting 109 to 2,074 MT. In 1971, Paraguay exported 7,400 MT, up from 2300 tons in
|
||
1964.^^^ Commenting on comparative yields of oil per ha, Markley^^ shows only 96 to 640
|
||
kg/ha for this species, compared to 2,790 for oil palm, 818 for coconut, 420 for sesame,
|
||
392 for rapeseed, 308 for sunflower, 230 for peanuts, 193 for flaxseeds, and 190 for soybeans.
|
||
Energy — The oil could be used like that of other oil palms for energy, the press-cake
|
||
for alcohol production or animal feed. Brazil is now studying this plant as a renewable
|
||
source of fuel oil.^^^
|
||
Biotic factors — A highly destructive stem borer or snout beetle (Rhyna barbirostris)
|
||
attacks the palm. Larvae may devour the whole interior, except for the long cellulose fiber.
|
||
A fungus, probably Phaecophora acrocomiac, may cause yellow blotches with black centers
|
||
on the leaves. Ruminants may eat the whole fruit, regurgitating or even defecating entire
|
||
kernels (“ nuts” ). Seedlings may be devoured by insects, birds, or other animals, as well
|
||
as attacked by microorganisms.
|
||
Handbook of Nuts
|
||
Table 1
|
||
COMPOSITION (%) OF COMMERCIAL SAMPLES OF A.
|
||
TOTAI PRODUCTS'”
|
||
Outer Pulp, Kernel,
|
||
hull Pulp expeller Shell expeller
|
||
Constituent (epicarp) (mesocarp) cake (endocarp) Kernel cake
|
||
Moisture (H2O) 6.65 4.31 5.26 6.84 3.17 7.44
|
||
Lipides (oil) 3.88 27.94 6.26 2.46 66.75 7.22
|
||
Nitrogen 0.74 0.67 0.98 0.31 2.02 5.50
|
||
Protein {N x 6.25) 4.62 4.18 6.12 1.94 12.62 34.38
|
||
Crude fiber 36.00 8.82 6.83 49.69 8.60 11.65
|
||
—
|
||
Sugars (total) 4.85 5.16 — 1.28 2.80
|
||
5.82
|
||
Ash 10.32 9.16 3.26 1.98 5.37
|
||
Potassium 2.18 2.18 2.75 1.02 1.36 1.55
|
||
Phosphorus 0.10 0.12 0.16 0.04 0.42 1.14
|
||
Calcium 0.07 0.09 0.10 0.04 0.08 0.27
|
||
Table 2
|
||
CHARACTERISTICS AND COMPOSITION OF THE PULP OILS
|
||
OF A. TOTAI AND E. GUINEENSIS^^
|
||
Characteristic A. A.
|
||
E. guineensis
|
||
—
|
||
Specific gravity (40°C) 0.9240 0.898—0.901
|
||
Refractive index (40°C) 1.4615 1.4582— 1.4607 1.453— 1.456
|
||
—
|
||
Titer value (°C) 26.1— 33.2 4 0 - ^ 7
|
||
Iodine value
|
||
68.4 54.5— 66.7 44— 58
|
||
Unsaponifiable matter (%) 0.81 0.27— 0.55 < 0 .8
|
||
Saponification value 197.0 200— 209 195— 205
|
||
Free fatty acids (% palmitic) 41.2 1— ?
|
||
Total fatty acids
|
||
Iodine value — —
|
||
69.7
|
||
Thiocyanogen value
|
||
66.6 — —
|
||
Saturated (%) 20.0 — 39— 50
|
||
Oleic (%) —
|
||
80.0 38— 52
|
||
Linoleic (%) —
|
||
0.0 6— 10
|
||
ADHATODA VASICA (L.) Nees (ACANTHACEAE) — Malabar Nut, Adotodai, Pavettia,
|
||
Wanepala, Basak
|
||
Syn.: Justicia adhatoda L.
|
||
Uses — Plants grown for reclaiming waste lands. Because of its fetid scent, it is not eaten
|
||
by cattle and goats. Leaves and twigs commonly used in Sri Lanka as green manure for
|
||
field crops, and elsewhere in rice fields. Leaves, on boiling in water, give durable yellow
|
||
dye used for coarse cloth and skins; in combination with indigo, cloth takes a greenish-blue
|
||
to dark green color. Also used to impart black color to pottery. Stems and twigs used as
|
||
supports for mud-walls. Wood makes good charcoal for gunpowder, and used as fuel for
|
||
brick-making. Ashes used in place of crude carbonate of soda for washing clothes. In Bengal,
|
||
statue heads are carved from the wood. Leaves also used in agriculture as a weedicide,
|
||
insecticide, and fungicide, as they contain the alkaloid, vasicine. As a weedicide, it is used
|
||
against aquatic weeds in rice-fields; as insecticide, used in same way tobacco leaves; as
|
||
fungicide, they prevent growth of fungi on fruits which are covered with vasica leaves.
|
||
Market gardeners place layers of leaves over fruit, like mangoes, plantains, and custard-
|
||
apples, which have been picked in immature state to hasten ripening and to ensure devel
|
||
opment of natural color in these fruits without spoilage.®^
|
||
Folk medicine — Plant has many medicinal uses. Whole plant used in Sri Lanka for
|
||
treatment of excessive phlegm, and in menorrhagia. Leaves are source of an expectorant
|
||
drug used to relieve coughs. Plants are used in folk remedies for glandular tumors in India.
|
||
Leaf used for asthma, bronchitis, consumption, cough, fever, jaundice, tuberculosis; smoked
|
||
for asthma; prescribed as a mucolytic, antitussive, antispasmodic, expectorant. Ayurvedics^^^
|
||
use the root for hematuria, leucorrhea, parturition, and strangury, the plant for asthma,
|
||
blood impurities, bronchitis, consumption, fever, heart disease, jaundice, leucoderma, loss
|
||
of memory (amnesia), stomatosis, thirst, tumors, and vomiting. Yunani use the fruit for
|
||
bronchitis, the flowers for jaundice, poor circulation, and strangury; the emmenagogue leaves
|
||
in gonorrhea, and the diuretic root in asthma, bilious nausea, bronchitis, fever, gonorrhea,
|
||
and sore eyes.^^
|
||
Chemistry — Used in Indian medicine for more than 2000 years, adhatoda now has a
|
||
whole book dedicated to only one of its active alkaloids.In addition to antiseptic and
|
||
Handbook of Nuts
|
||
insecticidal properties, vasicine produces a slight fall of blood pressure, followed by rise to
|
||
the original level, and an increase in the amplitude of heart beats and a slowing of the
|
||
rhythm. It has a slight but persistent bronchodilator effect. With a long history as an
|
||
expectorant in India, vasicine has recently been modified to form the derivative bromhexine,
|
||
a mucolytic inhalant agent, which increases respiratory fluid volume, diluting the mucus,
|
||
and reduces its viscosity. Fluid extract of leaves liquifies sputum, relieving coughs and
|
||
bronchial spasms. The plant also contains an unidentified principle agent active against the
|
||
tubercular bacillus. Adhatodine, anisotinine, betaine, vasakin, vasicine, vasicinine, vasici-
|
||
nol, vasicinone, vasicoline, vasicolinone, are reported. Deoxyvasicine is a highly effective
|
||
antifeedant followed by vasicinol and vasicine. These plant products as antifeedants could
|
||
be safely used for controlling pests on vegetable crops. AtaP devoted a whole book
|
||
to the chemistry and pharmacology of Vasicine-A. At the Regional Research Laboratory
|
||
(RRL), in Jammu, vasicine showed a definite bronchodilatory effect, comparable to that of
|
||
theophylline, as well as hypotensive, respiratory stimulant, and uterotonic activities.The
|
||
total alkaloid content is up to 0.4%, of which 85 to 90% is vasicine.
|
||
Toxicity — Vasicine is toxic to cold-blooded creatures (including fish) but not to mam
|
||
mals. Although it is not listed in many poisonous plant books, the fact that it is not grazed
|
||
suggests that it could well be poisonous.Vasicine and vasicinol exhibit potential to reduce
|
||
fertility in insects. “ Vasicine is also likely to replace the abortifacient drugs in current use
|
||
as its abortifacient activity is comparable to prostaglandins.“ ^^ In large doses the leaves
|
||
cause diarrhea and nausea.®^
|
||
Description — A gregarious, evergreen, densely branched shrub 1.5 to 3 (to 6) m tall;
|
||
bark smooth, ash-colored; branches softly hairy, intemodes short; leaves opposite, elliptic,
|
||
ovate or elliptic-lanceolate, pointed at both ends, acuminate, entire, minutely pubescent,
|
||
12.5 to 20 cm. long, 8 cm. broad; flowers white with red, pink, or white spots or streaks,
|
||
in dense axillary, stalked, bracteate spikes 2.5 to 7.5 cm long; bracts conspicuously leafy,
|
||
1-flowered; calyx deeply divided into 5 lobes, pubescent; corolla 2-lipped, pubescent outside;
|
||
upper lip notched, curved, lower lip 3-lobed; capsules 2.5 cm or more long, 0.8 cm broad,
|
||
clavate, pubescent, 4-seeded; seeds suborbicular, rugose. Flowers and fruit December to
|
||
April; in some areas flowers May—June also.^^®
|
||
Germplasm — Reported from the Indochina-Indonesia Centers of Diversity, Malabar
|
||
Nut or CVS thereof is reported to tolerate fungus, insects, mycobacteria, and weeds.
|
||
Distribution — Common to tropical India from Punjab to southern India, Sri Lanka, N.
|
||
Burma, Pakistan (Karachi, Sind, Khyber, Wazir, Kurram, Dir); Hong Kong, China, Yunnan,
|
||
where common.
|
||
Ecology — Abundant and gregarious in many areas of China and India, growing in full
|
||
sun, at edges of forests, in hilly regions often as the co-dominant shrub with Capparis
|
||
sepiaria L. Also grows in full sun on flood plains and in meadows. In Curacao, it grows
|
||
well on weathered diabase, in south Florida on oolitic limestone. In Sub-Himalayan region
|
||
ascends to 1,300 m altitude, more frequent at altitudes about 200 to 300 m. Requires a
|
||
subtropical to tropical climate with moderate precipitation. Though killed to the ground by
|
||
brief frosts, it recovers rapidly. Ranging from Warm Temperate Dry through Tropical Very
|
||
Dry Forest Life Zones, Malabar nut is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 5 to 42
|
||
dm (mean of 5 cases = 22), annual temperature of 15 to 2TC (mean of 5 cases = 24),
|
||
and pH of 4.5 to 7.5 (mean of 4 cases = 6.1).^^’^^®
|
||
Cultivation — As plants are quite common, often abundant, and gregarious in regions
|
||
of adaptation and where people use the plant, the plant is cultivated mainly in areas of
|
||
habitation, as hedges, wind-breaks, and for reclaiming soil. Propagation is by seeds broadcast
|
||
in areas of need, or in waste areas about areas of cultivation. Any forest edge is a likely
|
||
place to seed, so that the leaves or branches will be handy for use on other cultivated plants.
|
||
No particular care is taken, as the plants thrive on any tropical soil that is well-drained and
|
||
has sufficient precipitation. The plants, also propagated readily from cuttings, are said to
|
||
coppice well.^^^
|
||
Harvesting — Harvesting leaves and branches varies according to the needs of the local
|
||
farmer, for green manure, covering fruits or protection, etc. As plants are evergreen, leaves
|
||
are available year-round.
|
||
Yields and economics — No data available. However, plants are plentiful, and supply
|
||
all the leaves and twigs needed by those who use them. An important plant for reclaiming
|
||
waste land in areas of adaptation, as in India and Sri Lanka. Also used as weedicide,
|
||
insecticide, and fungicide in tropical areas. Mainly used in tropical Southeast Asia, S. China,
|
||
India, and Sri Lanka. One ton of leaves can yield 2 kg vasicine equivalent to 2 million
|
||
human doses.
|
||
Energy — I was surprised to see this listed in a book on firewood trees.They note
|
||
that it has a particularly desirable wood for quick, intense, long-lasting cooking fires, with
|
||
little or no odor, smoke or sparks. The moderately hard wood has been used to manufacture
|
||
gunpowder charcoal.If vasicine becomes commercialized, the biomass residues (>99%)
|
||
following vasicine extraction could conceivably serve as a pesticidal mulch or for conversion
|
||
to alcohol. Perhaps this should be viewed like the neem tree in the third world, stripping
|
||
the leaves as a pesticidal mulch, using the woody “ skeleton” for firewood.
|
||
Biotic factors — Fungi reported attacking this plant include the following species: Ae-
|
||
cidium adhatodaCy Alternaría tenuissima, Cercospora adhatodar, Chnoospora butleri,
|
||
Phomopsis acanthi (Phoma acanthi).^^^ Plants are parasitized by Cuscuta reflexa. Not browsed
|
||
by goats or other animals. One source states that this plant “ is never attacked by any
|
||
insect . . . even the voracious eater, Bihar Hairy Catterpillar (sic) {Dieresia obliqua) avoids
|
||
this plant.
|
||
8 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
ALEURITES FORDII Hemsl. (EUPHORBIACEAE) — Tung-Oil Tree
|
||
Uses — Tung trees are cultivated for their seeds, the endosperm of which supplies a
|
||
superior quick-drying oil, utilized in the manufacture of lacquers, varnishes, paints, linoleum,
|
||
oilcloth, resins, artificial leather, felt-base floor coverings, and greases, brake-linings and
|
||
in clearing and polishing compounds. Tung oil products are used to coat containers for food,
|
||
beverages, and medicines; for insulating wires and other metallic surfaces, as in radios,
|
||
radar, telephone, and telegraph instruments.
|
||
Folk medicine — Reported to be emetic, hemostat, and poisonous, tung-oil tree is a folk
|
||
remedy for bums, edema, ejaculation, masturbation, scabies, swelling, and trauma.
|
||
Chemistry — The fmit contains 14 to 20%; the kernel, 53 to 60%; and the nut, 30 to
|
||
40% oil. The oil contains 75 to 80% alpha-elaeo stearic-, 15% oleic-, ca 4% palmitic-, and
|
||
ca. 1% stearic acids. Tannins, phytosterols, and a poisonous saponin are also reported.
|
||
Description — Trees up to 12 m tall and wide, bark smooth, wood soft; leaves dark
|
||
green, up to 15 cm wide, heart-shaped, sometimes lobed, appearing usually just after, but
|
||
sometimes just before flowering; flowers in clusters, whitish, rose-throated, produced in
|
||
early spring from terminal buds of shoots of the previous season; monoecious, male and
|
||
female flowers in same inflorescence, usually with the pistillate flowers surrounded by several
|
||
staminate flowers; fruits spherical, pear-shaped or top shaped, green to purple at maturity,
|
||
with 4 to 5 carpels each with one seed; seeds usually 4 to 5, but may vary from 1 to 15, 2
|
||
to 3.2 cm long, 1.3 to 2.5 cm wide, consisting of a hard outer shell and a kernel from which
|
||
the oil is obtained. Flowers February to March; fmits late September to early November.
|
||
Germplasm — Reported from the China-Japan and North American Centers of Diversity,
|
||
tung-oil tree, or cvs thereof, is reported to tolerate bacteria, disease, frost, insects, poor
|
||
soil, and slope.High-yielding cultivars continue to be developed. Some of the best cvs
|
||
released by the USDA for growing in the southern U.S. are the following:
|
||
• ‘Folsom’: low-heading, high productivity; fruits large, late maturing, turning purplish
|
||
when mature, containing 21% oil; highest resistance to low temperature in fall.
|
||
• ‘GahT: low-heading, productive; fruits large, 20% oil content; matures early, somewhat
|
||
resistant to cold in fall.
|
||
• ‘Isabel’: low-heading, highly productive; fruits large, maturing early, 22% oil content.
|
||
• ‘La Crosse’: High-heading, exceptional productivity; fruits small, late maturing, tend
|
||
ing to break segments if not harvested promptly, 21 to 14% oil content; a very popular
|
||
cv.
|
||
• ‘Lampton’: out-yields all other varieties; very low-heading; fruits large, early maturing;
|
||
22% oil content.
|
||
Several other species of Aleurites are used to produce tung-oil, usually of low quality:
|
||
Aleurites cordata, Japanese wood-oil tree; A. moluccana, Candlenut or lumbang tree; A.
|
||
trisperma. Soft Lumbang tree; none of which can be grown commercially in the U.S.
|
||
Aleurites montana. Mu-tree, is the prevailing commercial species in South China and could
|
||
be grown in F l o r i d a . ( z n = zz.)
|
||
Distribution — Native to central and western China, where seedlings have been planted
|
||
for thousands of years; planted in the southern U.S. from Florida to eastern Texas.
|
||
Ecology — Ranging from Warm Temperate Dry to Wet through Tropical Very Dry to
|
||
Moist Forest Life Zones, tung-oil tree is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 6.4 to
|
||
21.0 dm (mean of 22 cases = 14.0), temperature of 18.7 to 27.0°C (mean of 21 cases =
|
||
24.0°C), pH of 5.4 to 7.1 (mean of 5 cases = 6.2).^^ Tung trees are very exacting in
|
||
climatic and soil requirements. They require long, hot summers with abundant moisture,
|
||
with usually at least 112 cm of rainfall rather evenly distributed through the year. Trees
|
||
require 350 to 400 hr in winter with temperatures 7.2°C or lower; without this cold require
|
||
ment, trees tend to produce suckers from the main branches. Vigorous but not succulent
|
||
growth is most cold-resistant; trees are susceptible to cold injury when in active growth.
|
||
Production of tung is best where day and night temperatures are uniformly warm. Much
|
||
variation reduces tree growth and fruit size. Trees grow best if planted on hilltops or slopes,
|
||
as good air-drainage reduces losses from spring frosts. Contour-planting on high rolling land
|
||
escapes frost damage. Tung makes its best growth on virgin land. Soils must be well-drained,
|
||
deep aerated, and have a high moisture-holding capacity to be easily penetrated by the roots.
|
||
Green manure crops and fertilizers may be needed. Dolomitic lime may be used to correct
|
||
excessive acidity; pH 6.0 to 6.5 is best; liming is beneficial to most soils in the Tung Belt,
|
||
the more acid soils requiring greater amounts of lime.*^’^^*
|
||
Cultivation — Tung trees may be propagated by seed or by budding. Seedlings generally
|
||
vary considerably from parent plants in growth and fruiting characters. Seedlings which
|
||
have been self-pollinated for several generations give rather uniform plants. Only 1 out of
|
||
100 selected “ mother” tung trees will produce seedlings sufficiently uniform for commercial
|
||
planting. However, a “ mother” tree proven worthy by progeny testing may be propagated
|
||
by budding. The budded trees, which are genetically identical with the original tree, will
|
||
provide an adequate supply of seed satisfactory for planting. Seedlings are used for the root
|
||
system for budded trees. Buds from “ mother” trees are inserted in stems of 1-year old
|
||
seedlings, 5 to 7.5 cm above the surface of the soil. Later, the original seedling top is cut
|
||
off and a new top grown for the transplanted bud, making the tops of budded trees parts of
|
||
the parent tree. Usually seedling trees outgrow budded trees, but budded trees produce larger
|
||
crops and are more uniform in production, oil content, and date of fruit maturity. Tung seed
|
||
are normally short-lived and must be planted during the season following harvest. Seeds are
|
||
best hulled before planting, as hulls retard germination. Hulled seed may be planted dry,
|
||
but soaking in water for 5 to 7 days hastens germination. Stratification, cold treatment or
|
||
chemical treatment of seeds brings about more rapid and uniform germination. Dry-stored
|
||
seed should be planted no later than February; stratified seed by mid-March; cold-treated
|
||
and chemical treated seed by early April. Seed may be planted either by hand or with a
|
||
modified corn-planter, the seed spaced 15 to 20 cm apart, about 5 cm, in rows 1.6 m apart,
|
||
depending on the equipment to be used for cultivation and for digging the trees. Seeds
|
||
germinate in 60 days or more; hence weed and grass control may be a serious problem. As
|
||
soon as seedlings emerge, a side-dressing of fertilizer (5-10-5) with commercial zinc sulfate
|
||
should be applied. Fertilizer is applied at rate of 600 kg/ha, in bands along each side of
|
||
row, 20 cm from seedlings and 5 to 7.5 cm deep. Other fertilizers may be needed, depending
|
||
on the soil. Most successful budding is done in late August, by the simple shield method,
|
||
requiring a piece of budstock bark, including a bud, that will fit into a cut in the rootstock
|
||
bar; a T-shaped cut is made in the bark of the rootstock at a point 5 to 7.5 cm above ground
|
||
level, the flaps of bark loosened, shield-bud slipped inside flaps, and the flaps tied tightly
|
||
over the transplanted bud with rubber budding stripe, 12 cm long, 0.6 cm wide, 0.002 thick.
|
||
After about 7 days, the rubber stripe is cut to prevent binding. As newly set buds are
|
||
susceptible to cold injury, soil is mounded over them for winter. When growth starts in
|
||
spring, soil is pulled back and each stock cut back to within 3.5 cm of the dormant bud.
|
||
Later, care consists of keeping all suckers removed and the trees well-cultivated. Trees are
|
||
transplanted to the orchard late the following winter. Spring budding is done only as a last
|
||
resort. Trees may be planted at 125 to 750/ha. When trees are small, close planting in rows
|
||
greatly increases the bearing surface, but at maturity the bearing surface of a crowded row
|
||
is about the same as that of a row with trees farther apart. However, it is well to leave
|
||
enough space between row for orchard operations. In contour-planting, distances between
|
||
rows and total number of trees per hectare vary; rows 10 to 12 m apart, trees spaced 3.3 to
|
||
4 m apart in rows, 250 to 350 trees/ha. Tops of nursery trees must be pruned back to 20 to
|
||
10 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
25 cm at planting. As growth starts, all buds are rubbed off except the one strongest growing
|
||
and best placed on the tree. A bud 5 cm or more below the top of the stump is preferred
|
||
over one closer to top.^^^
|
||
Harvesting — Tung trees usually begin bearing fruit the third year after planting, and
|
||
are usually in commercial production by the fourth or fifth year, attaining maximum pro
|
||
duction in 10 to 12 years. Average life of trees in the U.S. is 30 years. Fruits mature and
|
||
drop to ground in late September to early November. At this time they contain about 60%
|
||
moisture. Fruits must be dried to 15% moisture before processing. Fruits should be left on
|
||
the ground 3 to 4 weeks until hulls are dead and dry, and the moisture content has dropped
|
||
below 30%. Fruits are gathered by hand into baskets or sacks. Fruits do not deteriorate on
|
||
the ground until they germinate in spring.
|
||
Yields and economics — Trees yield 4.5 to 5 tons/ha. An average picker can gather 60
|
||
to 80 bushels of fruits per day, depending on conditions of the orchard. Fruits may be
|
||
gathered all through the winter season when other crops do not need care. Because all fruits
|
||
do not fall at the same time, 2 or more harvestings may be desirable to get the maximum
|
||
yield. Fruits are usually sacked, placed in the crotch of the tree and allowed to dry 2 to 3
|
||
weeks before delivery to the mill. Additional drying may be done at the mill, but wet fruits
|
||
contain less oil percentage-wise and prices will be lower. Prices for tung oil depend on price
|
||
supports, domestic production, imports, and industrial demands. World production in 1969
|
||
was 107,000 MT of tung nuts; in 1970, 143,000; and projected for 1980, 199,000. Wholesale
|
||
prices were about $0.276/kg; European import prices, $0.335/kg. Growers received about
|
||
$51.10/ton of fruit of 18.5% oil content to about $63.10/ton for fruits of 22% oil content.
|
||
Major producing countries are mainland China and South America (Argentina and Paraguay);
|
||
the U.S. and Africa produce much less. U.S. Bureau of Census figures 1,587,000 pounds
|
||
of tung oil were consumed during February of 1982, representing a 1,307,000 pound drop
|
||
from January. The largest application for the oil is paint and varnish, which accounted for
|
||
566,000 pounds of total consumption in F e b r u a r y .D e a l e r s in tung oil include:^^^
|
||
Alnore Oil Co., Inc. Pacific Anchor Chemical Corp.
|
||
P.O. Box 699 6055 E. Washington Boulevard
|
||
Valley Stream, NY 11582 Los Angeles, CA 90040
|
||
Industrial Oil Products Corp. Welch, Holme, & Clark Co., Inc.
|
||
375 N. Broadway 1000 S. 4th Street
|
||
Jericho, NY 11753 Harrison, NJ 07029
|
||
Kraft Chemical Co.
|
||
1975 N. Hawthorene Avenue
|
||
Melrose Park, IL 60160
|
||
Energy — During World War II, the Chinese used tung oil for motor fuel. It tended to
|
||
gum up the engines, so they processed it to make it compatible with gasoline. The mixture
|
||
worked fine,^"^^ Gaydou et al.^®^ reported yields of 4 to 6 MT/ha, converting to 1,800 to
|
||
2,700 € oil per ha, equivalent to 17,000 to 25,500 kWh/ha.
|
||
Biotic factors — Bees are needed to transfer pollen from anthers to pistil. When staminate
|
||
and pistillate flowers are on separate trees, 1 staminate tree for 20 pistillate trees should be
|
||
planted in the orchard. Pollination can occur over several days. Tung trees are relatively
|
||
free of insects and diseases, only a few causing losses serious enough to justify control
|
||
measures: e.g., Botroyosphaeria rihis, Clitocybe tabescens, Mycosphaerella aleuritidis.
|
||
Pellicularia koleroga, Physalospora rhodina and the bacterium. Pseudomonas aleuritidis.
|
||
Other bacteria and fungi reported on tung trees are Armillaria mellea, Botryodiplodia theo-
|
||
11
|
||
bromae, Cephaleures virescens, Cercospora aleuritidis, Colletotrichum gloeosporioides,
|
||
Corticium koleroga, Fomes lamaoensis, F. lignosus, Fusarium heterosporum forma aleu
|
||
ritidis, F. oxysporum, F. scirpi, F. solani, Ganoderma pseudoferreum, Coleosporium aleu-
|
||
riticum, Glomerella cingulata, Pestalotia dichaeta, Phyllosticta microspora, Phytomonas
|
||
syringae, Phytophthora omnivor a, Ph. cinnamomi, Poria hypolateritia, Pythium aphani-
|
||
dermatum, Rhizoctonia solani, Septobasidium aleuritidis, S. pseudopedicellatum, Sphae-
|
||
rostilbe repens, Uncinula miyabei var. aleuritis, Ustilina maxima, U. zonata. Insect pests
|
||
are not a serious problem, since fruit and leaves of tung trees are toxic to most animal life.
|
||
Nematodes Meloidogyne spp. have been reported.
|
||
12 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
ALEURITES MOLUCCANA (L.) Willd. (EUPHORBIACEAE) — Candlenut Oil Tree, Can-
|
||
dleberry, Varnish Tree, Indian or Belgium Walnut, Lumbang Oil
|
||
Syn.: Aleurites triloba Forst., Croton moluccanus L.
|
||
Uses — Seed yields 57 to 80% of inedible, semi-drying oil, liquid at ordinary temperatures,
|
||
solidifying at - 15°C, and containing oleostearic acid. The oil is quicker drying than linseed
|
||
oil, and is used as a wood preservative, for varnishes and paint oil, also as an illuminant,
|
||
for soap-making, waterproofing paper, in India rubber substitutes and insulating masses.
|
||
Fruits said to be used as a fish poison. Seeds are moderately poisonous and press cake is
|
||
used as fertilizer. Kernels, when roasted and cooked are considered edible; may be strung
|
||
as candlenuts. Oil is painted on bottoms of small craft to protect against marine borers.
|
||
Tung oil, applied to cotton bolls, stops boll weevils from eating them; also prevents feeding
|
||
by striped cucumber beetle.
|
||
Folk medicine — Bark used on tumors in Japan. Reported to be aperient, aphrodisiac,
|
||
laxative, poison, purgative, stimulant, sudorific, candlenut oil tree is a folk remedy for
|
||
asthma, debility, sores, swelling, tumors, unconsciousness, womb ailments, and wounds.
|
||
The oil is purgative and sometimes used like castor oil. In China, it is applied to sciatica.
|
||
Kernels are laxative, stimulant, and sudorific. The irritant oil is rubbed on scalp as a hair
|
||
stimulant. In Sumatra, pounded seeds, burned with charcoal, are applied round the navel
|
||
for costiveness. Leaves are applied for rheumatism in the Philippines. In Malaya, the pulped
|
||
kernel enters poultices for headche, fevers, ulcers, and swollen joints. Boiled leaves are
|
||
applied to headache, scrofula, swollen joints, and ulcers. In Java, the bark is used for bloody
|
||
diarrhea or dysentery. Bark juice with coconut milk is used for sprue and thrush. Malayans
|
||
apply boiled leaves to the temples for headache, and to the pubes for gonnorhea.^^ In Yunani
|
||
medicine, the oil is considered anodyne, aphrodisiac, and cardiotonic, and the fruit is
|
||
recommended for the brain, bronchitis, bruises, heart, hydrophobia, liver, piles, ringworm,
|
||
and watery eyes. In Ayurvedic medicine, the fruit is considered apertif, aphrodisiac, anti-
|
||
bilious, cardiac, depurative, and refrigerant.
|
||
Chemistry — The oil cake, containing ca. 46.2% protein, 4.4% P2O5, and 2.0% K2O,
|
||
13
|
||
is said to be poisonous. A toxalbumin and HCN have been suggested. Bark contains ca. 4
|
||
to 6% tannin. Oil also contains glycerides of linolenic, oleic and various linoleic acids. Per
|
||
100 g, the seed is reported to contain 626 calories, 7.0 g H2O, 19.0 g protein, 63.0 g fat,
|
||
8.0 g total carbohydrate, 3.0 g ash, 80 mg Ca, 200 mg P, 2.0 mg Fe, 0 mg beta-carotene
|
||
equivalent, 0.06 mg thiamine, and 0 mg ascorbic acid.^^
|
||
Description — Medium-sized tree, up to 20 m tall, ornamental, with spreading or pen
|
||
dulous branches; leaves simple, variable in shape, young leaves large, up to 30 cm long,
|
||
palmate, with 3 to 7 acuminate lobes, shining, while leaves on mature trees are ovate, entire,
|
||
and acuminate, long-petioled, whitish above when young, becoming green with age, with
|
||
rusty stellate pubescence beneath when young, and persisting on veins and petiole; flowers
|
||
in rusty-pubescent panicled cymes 10 to 15 cm long; petals 5, dingy white or creamy,
|
||
oblong, up to 1.3 cm long; ovary 2-celled; fruit an indéhiscent drupe, roundish, 5 cm or
|
||
more in diameter, with thick rough hard shell making up 64 to 68% of fruit, difficult to
|
||
separate from kernels; containing 1 or 2 seeds. Flowers April to May (Sri Lanka).
|
||
Germpiasm — Reported from the Indochina-Indonesia Center of Diversity, Aleurites
|
||
moluccana, or cvs thereof, is reported to tolerate high pH, low pH, poor soil, and slope.
|
||
(2n = 44,22).
|
||
Distribution — Native to Malaysia, Polynesia, Malay Peninsula, Philippines, and South
|
||
Seas Islands; now widely distributed in tropics. Naturalized or cultivated in Malagasy, Sri
|
||
Lanka, southern India, Bangladesh, Brazil, West Indies, and the Gulf Coast of the U.S.^^®
|
||
Ecology — Candlenut trees thrive in moist tropical regions, up to 1,200 m altitude.
|
||
Ranging from Subtropical Dry to Wet through Tropical Very Dry to Wet Forest Life Zones,
|
||
Aleurites moluccana is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 6.4 to 42.9 dm (mean of
|
||
14 cases = 19.4) annual temperature of 18.7 to 27.4°C (mean of 14 cases = 24.6) and pH
|
||
of 5.0 to 8.0 (mean of 7 cases = 6.4).^^
|
||
Cultivation — Usually propagated from seed, requiring 3 to 4 months to germinate.
|
||
Seedlings planted 3(X)/ha. Once established, trees require little to no attention.
|
||
Harvesting — Bear two heavy crops each year. After harvesting mature fruits, it is
|
||
difficult to separate kernels from shell, as the kernels adhere to sides of shell.
|
||
Yields and economics — Asa plantation crop, tree yields are estimated at 5 to 20 tons/ha
|
||
of nuts, each tree producing 30 to 80 kg. Oil production varies from 15 to 20% of nut
|
||
weight. Most oil produced in India, Sri Lanka, and other tropical regions is used locally
|
||
and does not figure into international trade. In the past, oil has sold for 12 to 14 pounds
|
||
per ton in England. According to the Chemical Marketing Reporter,tung oil prices (then
|
||
ca. $.65/lb) are likely to rise in the near future if demand remains adequate and Argentinean
|
||
and Paraguayan suppliers pressure the U.S. market by charging high prices for replacement
|
||
oil. U.S. imports for the first quarter of 1981 were 58% higher than 1980, despite the absence
|
||
of Chinese tung from the market.
|
||
Energy — Nut yields are estimated at 80 kg/tree, which, spaced at 200 trees per hectare,
|
||
would suggest 16 MT/ha/yr, about 20% of which (3 MT) would be oil, suitable, with
|
||
modification, for diesel uses, the residues for conversion to alcohol or pyrolysis. Fruit yields
|
||
may range from 4 to 20 MT/ha/yr. Commercial production of oil yields 12 to 18% of the
|
||
weight of the dry unhulled fruits, the fruits being air-dried to ca. 12 to 15% moisture before
|
||
pressing. The pomace contains 4.5 to 5% oil. This suggests that the “ chaff factor” might
|
||
be ca 0.8. Oil yields as high as 3,100 kg/ha have been reported. As of June 15, 1981, tung
|
||
oil was $0.65/lb, compared to $0.38 for peanut oil, $1.39 for poppyseed oil, $0.33 for
|
||
linseed oil, $0.275 for coconut oil, $0.265 for cottonseed oil, $0.232 for com oil, and $0.21
|
||
for soybean oil.^^^ At $2.(X) per gallon, gasoline is roughly $0.25/lb.
|
||
Biotic factors — Following fungi are known to attack candlenut-oil tree: Cephalosporium
|
||
sp., Clitocybe tabescens, Fomes hawaiensis, Gloeosporium aleuriticum, Phasalospora rhod-
|
||
ina, Polyporus gilvus, Pythium ultimum, Sclerotium rolfsii, Sphaeronaema reinkingii, Tra-
|
||
metes corrugata, Xylaria curta, Ustulina deusta.^^^
|
||
14 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
ALEURITES MONTANA (Lour.) Wils. (ANACARDIACEAE) — Wood-Oil Tree, Mu-Oil
|
||
Tree
|
||
Uses — Kernels yield a valuable drying oil, largely used in paints, varnishes, and lino
|
||
leums. Also used locally for illumination and lacquer-work. Varnish made from this plant
|
||
possess a high degree of water-resistance, gloss, and durability. There are only slight dif
|
||
ferences between the oils of A. montana and A. fordii}^^
|
||
Folk medicine — The oil is applied to furuncles and ulcers.
|
||
Chemistry — The oil content of the seed is ca. 50 to 60%. Oil consists chiefly of
|
||
glycerides of beta-elaeostearic and oleic acids, and probably a little linoleic acid. Oil cake
|
||
residue is poisonous and is only fit for manuring.
|
||
Description — A small tree about 5 m tall, much-branched, partially deciduous, dioecious.
|
||
Leaves simple, ovate or more or less cordate, apex cuspidate, about 12 cm long, 10 cm
|
||
broad, sometimes larger and 3-lobed; leaf-blade with 2 large, conspicuous glands at base,
|
||
petiole up to 24 cm long. Flowers monoecious, petals large, white, up to 3 cm long. Fruits
|
||
egg-shaped, 3-lobed, wrinkled, about 5 cm in diameter, pointed at summit, flattened at base,
|
||
generally with 3 or 4 one-seeded segments, the outer surface with wavy transverse ridges,
|
||
the pericarp thick, hard, and weedy. Flowers and fruits March.
|
||
Germplasm — Reported from the China-Japan Center of Diversity, mu-oil tree, or cvs
|
||
thereof, is reported to tolerate high pH, poor soil, and slope. (2n = 22.
|
||
Distribution — Native to South China and some of the S. Shan States (Burma). Introduced
|
||
and cultivated successfully in Indochina (where it has replaced A. fordii), Malawi, and in
|
||
cooler parts of Florida, and other tropical regions.
|
||
Ecology — Ranging from Warm Temperate Moist through Tropical Dry to Moist Forest
|
||
Life Zones, mu-oil tree is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 6.7 to 20.2 dm (mean
|
||
of 8 cases = 13.6), annual temperature of 14.8 to 26.5°C (mean of 8 cases = 21.9°C),
|
||
and pH of 5.5 to 8.0 (mean of 6 cases = 6.2).®^ Adapted to subtropical regions and high
|
||
elevations with moderate rainfall. Mainly a hillside species, it can thrive in warmer climates
|
||
and will withstand heavier rainfall than A.fordii, provided the area is well-drained. Maximum
|
||
temperature 35.5°C, minimum temperature 6°C. It is frost-tender, and does not require a
|
||
low temperature (below 3°C) as tung-oil trees {A. fordii) do, so can be grown in warmer
|
||
regions. In Assam, grown where rainfall is 175 to 275 cm annually; in Mysore at elevations
|
||
of 800 to 1,000 m with annual rainfall of 150 cm. Grows well in alluvial soils and is not
|
||
very exacting in its soil requirements. In richer soils, the growth is more vigorous. A slightly
|
||
acid soil is preferable.
|
||
Cultivation — Trees are propagated from seeds or by budding. In Malawi, propagation
|
||
is by budding from high-yielding clones. Seeds are usually planted in a nursery and may
|
||
take from 2 to 3 months to germinate. When seedlings are about 1 year old, they are planted
|
||
out, spaced 6.6 x 6.6 m or more. Cultural practices are similar to those for A. fordii. As
|
||
soon as the seedlings emerge, a side-dressing of fertilizer (5-10-5) of nitrogen and phos
|
||
phorus, along with commercial zinc sulfate, should be applied. Fertilizer is applied at rate
|
||
of 6(X) kg/ha, in bands along each side of row, 20 cm from seedlings and 5 to 7.5 cm deep.
|
||
Other fertilizers may be needed, depending on the soil. According to Spurling and Spurling,^’^
|
||
N is the most important nutrient for tung in Malawi, irrespective of climate or soil. Most
|
||
successful budding is done in late August, by the simple shield method, requiring a piece
|
||
of budstick bark, including a bud, that will fit into a cut in the rootstock bark. A T-shaped
|
||
cut is made in bark of rootstock at a point 5 to 7.5 cm above ground level, the flaps of bark
|
||
loosened, shield-bud slipped inside flaps, and the flaps tied tightly over the transplanted bud
|
||
with rubber budding strip 12 cm long and 0.6 cm wide. After about 7 days, the rubber strip
|
||
is cut to prevent binding. As newly set buds are susceptible to cold injury, soil is mounded
|
||
over them for winter. When growth starts in spring, soil is pulled back and each stock cut
|
||
15
|
||
back to within 3.5 cm of the dormant bud. Later care consists of keeping all suckers removed
|
||
and the trees well-cultivated. Trees may be planted 125 to 750/ha. When trees are small,
|
||
close planting in rows greatly increases the bearing surface, but at maturity the bearing
|
||
surface of a crowded row is about the same as for a row with trees further apart. However,
|
||
it is well to leave enough space between rows for orchard operations. In contour-planting,
|
||
distances between rows and total number of trees per hectare vary; rows 10 to 12 m apart,
|
||
trees spaced 3.3 to 4 m apart in rows, 250 to 350 trees/ha. Tops of trees must be pruned
|
||
back to 20 to 25 cm at planting. As growth starts, all buds are rubbed off except the one
|
||
strongest growing and best placed on the tree. A bud 5 cm or more below the top of stump
|
||
is preferred over one closer to the top.^^^’^*^
|
||
Harvesting — Trees begin bearing 2 to 5 years after transplanting with maximum pro
|
||
duction reached in 8 years and continuing for 40 years. In northern Burma, it has been
|
||
observed to be more vigorous and disease-resistant than A. fordii. In Indochina, it has been
|
||
successfully planted and its oil is now being produced on a commercial scale, replacing that
|
||
of A. fordii. Fruits mature and drop to ground in late September to early November. They
|
||
are gathered and dried to 15% moisture before processing. Fruits should be left on the ground
|
||
3 to 4 weeks until hulls are dead and dry, and the moisture content has dropped below 30%;
|
||
fresh they are about 60% moisture. Fruits are gathered by hand into baskets or sacks.
|
||
Yields and economics — A. montana is reported to give much higher yields of fruits
|
||
than A. fordii. The percentage of kernels in the seeds is about 56%, and of oil in the kernels,
|
||
about 59.3%. Major producers of the oil from A. montana are Burma, Indochina (Vietnam,
|
||
Cambodia, Laos), Malawi, Congo, East Africa, South Africa, Malagasy Republic, India,
|
||
and U.S.S.R. It has been considered for introduction in Florida.
|
||
Energy — Yields of oil per tree in China is figured to be about 3.2 kg; in Florida, 4.5
|
||
to 9 kg. Trees yield about 45 to 68 kg nuts per year, these yielding about 35 to 40% oil.
|
||
In one Malawi trial, N treatments gave an increase of 519 kg/ha dry seed over a trial mean
|
||
of 1070 kg/ha. With tung cake and ammonium sulphate, air dry tung seed yields of 12 to
|
||
17 year old trees was 2013 to 2367 kg/ha, of 6 to 9 year olds 766 to 1546 kg/ha.
|
||
Biotic factors — Fungi reported on A. montana include the following: Armillaria mellea,
|
||
Botryodiplodia theobromae, Botryosphaeria ribis, Cephaleuros mycoidea, C. virescens,
|
||
Cercospora aleuritidis, Colletotrichum gloeosporioides var. aleuritidis, Corticium koleroga,
|
||
C. solani (Rhizoctonia solani), Corynespora cassiicola, Diplodia theobromae, Fusarium
|
||
arthrosporioides, F. lateritium, Glomerella cingulata, Haplosporella aleurites, Mycospha-
|
||
erella aleuritidis, Periconia byssoides, Pestalotiopsis disseminata, P. glandicola, P. ja
|
||
pónica, P. versicolor, Pestalotia dichaeta, Phyllosticta microspora, Pseudocampton
|
||
fasciculatum, Rhizoctonia lanellifera, Schizophyllum commune, Thyronectriapseudotrichia,
|
||
Trametes occidentalis, Ustulina zonata.^^^
|
||
16 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
AMPHICARPAEA BRACTEATA (L.) Femald (FABACEAE) — Hog Peanut, Wild Peanut
|
||
Uses — Ojibwa Indians were said to eat both roots and seeds cooked. (There’s not much
|
||
to the roots.) Meskwaki (Fox) Indians learned that mice gathered the underground nuts and
|
||
laid them up in stores, which stores the Indians gathered for themselves (Dakota Indians
|
||
were said to leave com or other food in exchange). The subterranean seeds are more important
|
||
as food. They have been likened to garden-bean in flavor, the aerial seeds to soybeans. As
|
||
late as November in Maryland, the subterranean seeds may be tracked from the dying
|
||
yellow/brown tops. If eaten raw, seeds might be soaked in warm water or water with
|
||
hardwood ashes. In October, when both Amphicarpaea and Apios seeds are available, I find
|
||
both the aerial and subterranean seeds of the Amphicarpaea seeds much more pleasing to
|
||
the palate raw than the Apios seeds. Gallaher and Buhr^®^ speculate that the subterranean
|
||
seeds may “ have survival-potential under conditions of intense grazing.” I suggest that the
|
||
subterranean seeds might not set in tightly packed sod. Both aerial and subterranean seeds
|
||
are eaten by bear, chipmunk, deer, grouse, mice, pheasant, prairie chicken, quail, and wild
|
||
turkey. Vines are browsed by livestock and probably deer. Once cultivated in southern U.S.,
|
||
hog peanuts have been suggested for planting in poultry forage systems and for intercropping
|
||
with com and perhaps ginseng. All members of the genus can be important in soil improve
|
||
ment, as soil cover, and in erosion control.®
|
||
Folk medicine — Chippewa drank the root with other roots as a general physic, while,
|
||
conversely, the Cherokee used it for diarrhea. Cherokee also blew the root tea onto snakebite
|
||
wounds."^
|
||
17
|
||
Chemistry — Marshall'^^^ notes that the aerial seeds, with flavor similar to soybeans,
|
||
contain ca. 30% protein, 7 to 16% oil. The oil contains 10.3 to 10.4% palmitic-, 1.3 to
|
||
1.6% stearic-, 24.9 to 26.7% oleic-, 54.8 to 58.5% linoleic-, and 6.5 to 7.6% linolenic-
|
||
acids. The cleistogamous, underground seeds, weighing as much as 1 g each, may contain
|
||
50% water. Their oil content is lower, and the protein content may be only 14.3%, perhaps'^®'*
|
||
reflecting the higher water content.Lectins are also reported. Gallaher and Buhr^®^ analyzed
|
||
Tennessee fodder during early pod-fill stage, reporting for the whole plant ca. 89% organic
|
||
matter, 26.5 g/kg N, 2.4 g/kg P, 14.2 g/kg K, 17.3 g/kg Ca, 4.1 g/kg Mg, 20 ppm Cu, 40
|
||
ppm Zn, 120 ppm Mn, and 360 ppm Fe, averaging slightly lower than pegging peanut
|
||
forage, but higher in P, Ca, Mn, and Fe. Crude protein in the hog peanut forage was over
|
||
16%, slightly below the peanut forage.
|
||
Description — Weak, twining, climbing annual (though often cited as perennial) to 2 m
|
||
long, the stems sparsely appressed short-pubescent to densely villous. Leaves 3-foliolate;
|
||
leaflets entire, ovate to rhombic-ovate, the laterals often asymmetrical, 2 to 10 cm long,
|
||
petiolulate, stipellate; usually pubescent. Axillary racemes of 1 to 17 petaliferous flowers,
|
||
on peduncles 1 to 6 cm long, the ovate bracts 2 to 5 mm long; pedicels 1.5 to 5 mm long;
|
||
racemes from lower axils slender, elongate, with cleistogamous, apetalous, inconspicuous
|
||
flowers. Calyx of petaliferous flowers narrowly campanulate; tube 4 to 6 mm long, ca. 2
|
||
mm in diameter; upper 2 lobes united, or nearly so, glabrous to densely appressed-pubescent;
|
||
petals pale purple or lilac to white, 9 to 16 mm long; stamens of the petaliferous flowers
|
||
diadelphous, 9 and 1; ovary stipitate, style not bearded. Legume from petaliferous flowers
|
||
flattened, oblong-linear, 1.5 to 4 cm long, 7-10 mm broad, often 3-seeded, valves laterally
|
||
twisting in dehiscence; fruit from cleistogamous flowers fleshy, often subterranean, usually
|
||
1-seeded, indéhiscent, cryptocotylar.^^^ Duke"^®^ recognizes four different flower/fruit
|
||
combinations:
|
||
1. Subterranean seed, whose cleistogamous flowers never left the soil (usually one or
|
||
two); the biggest, juiciest, softest, and most edible (15% protein). For propagation in
|
||
situ.
|
||
2. Geotropic seed from cleistogamous flowers at the tip of branches originating in the
|
||
axils of the first simple aerial leaves. Usually solitary, soft, plump. For propagation
|
||
nearby.
|
||
3. Aerial cleistogamous flowers, whose pods, and usually single hard seeds, develop
|
||
strictly above ground. For dispersal.
|
||
4. Aerial chasmogamous flowers followed by pods with usually three small hard seeds
|
||
(the smallest, driest, hardest, and least edible, yet 30% protein). For longer distance
|
||
dispersal. The type 4 flower/fruits are said to occur mostly in sunny situations. If the
|
||
forest is cleared, the increased sunlight would trigger more dispersal seed, enhancing
|
||
the chances to move the plant back into the forest.
|
||
Germplasm — Reported from the North American Center of Diversity, hog peanut, or
|
||
CVS thereof, is reported to tolerate alluvium, muck, mulch, sand, shade, slope, and brief
|
||
waterlogging. A. bracteata is said to merge imperceptibly with var. comosa, which grows
|
||
on richer, often calcareous or alluvial soil. Turner and Fearing"^ concluded the genus
|
||
contained only three species, A. africana in the cool high mountains of Africa, A. edgeworthii
|
||
in the Himalayas and eastern Asia, and the American A. bracteata, the latter two nearly
|
||
indistinguishable. (2n = 20,40.)
|
||
Distribution — Native to damp shaded woodlands from Quebec to Manitoba and Montana,
|
||
south to Florida, Louisiana, and Texas.
|
||
Ecology — Estimated to range from Warm Temperate Moist to Wet through Cool Tem
|
||
perate Dry to Wet Forest Life Zones, hog peanut is estimated to tolerate annual precipitation
|
||
18 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
of 8 to 20 dm, annual temperature of 8 to 14°C, and pH of 5.5 to 7.5. Although native to
|
||
damp shaded forest, the plant can be cultivated in sandy, sunny situations. The underground
|
||
seed must have very different chemistry, ecology, and physiology, destined for immediate
|
||
survival and not dispersal, as contrasted to the aerial seed, destined for long-term dispersal.
|
||
Cultivation — Said to have been cultivated in the South, but few details are available.
|
||
W. G. Dore"*^^ sterilizes his soil, plants in the fall, and mulches with such things as sawdust,
|
||
peat moss, vermiculite, and/or organic muck. Gas-sterilization is all but imperative to control
|
||
weeds since the clambering habit of the vine precludes cultivation. In fertile soils in full
|
||
sun, the one-seeded beans grow large and succulent, comparable to peanuts, or even lima
|
||
beans. Frey'*^’ suggests intercropping the hog peanut with com.
|
||
Harvesting — The large seeds appear beneath the dead leaves, generally just under the
|
||
surface of the ground. In weed-free culture, the tangled vines can be raked off preparatory
|
||
to harvest in fall. In loose sandy soil, the seeds separate out easily with a quarter inch screen.
|
||
Harvested seed tend to germinate in the refrigerator, if not frozen.
|
||
Yields and economics — Unpublished research by W. G. Dore"^^ reported yields as high
|
||
as 1 kg seed per 10 m row. His seed were fall-planted about 10 cm apart in gas-sterilized
|
||
sandy loam.
|
||
Energy — Both biomass (ca. 5 g per plant) and oil yields are low. The biomass raked
|
||
up before harvesting could conceivably be converted to energy. The nitrogen fixed by the
|
||
plant could be energetically important, in pastures, forests, and in intercropping scenarios.
|
||
Biotic factors — Agriculture Handbook No. 165"^ lists the following as affecting Am-
|
||
phicarpaea bracteata: Cercospora monoica (leaf spot), and Erysiphe poly goni (powdery
|
||
mildew). Agriculture Handbook No. 165,"^ without reference to a specific species, also lists:
|
||
Colletotrichum sp. (leaf spot), Parodiella perisporioides (black mildew), Puccinia andrò-
|
||
pogonis var. onobrychidis (rust), and Synchytrium aecidioides (false mst, leaf gall). Allen
|
||
and Allen^ report that earlier studies showed a relative inability of the hog peanut Rhizobium
|
||
to nodulate legumes from 21 diverse genera. Later plant-infection studies discounted this
|
||
exclusiveness by showing plant-infection kinships within the cowpea miscellany. Larvae of
|
||
Rivella pallida Lowe, a common and widely distributed species of the dipteran family
|
||
Platystomatidae (and a potential pest of soybean), attack the N2-fixing root nodules of
|
||
Amphicarpaea. The nodular contents are completely destroyed, thus eliminating the nodule’s
|
||
ability to fix N2. Up to 25% of an individual’s nodules are damaged in northeastern Ohio.
|
||
There is one and perhaps a partial second generation per year in northern Ohio, with
|
||
overwintering occurring as mature larvae in diapause. Eight species of neartic Rivellia
|
||
(including R. flavimana Loew and R. metallica (Walp)) occur on Amphicarpaea bracteata
|
||
(L.).**®® Chasmogamous flowers are pollinated primarily by Bombus affinis."^
|
||
19
|
||
ANACARDIUM OCCIDENTALE L. (ANACARDIACEAE) — Cashew
|
||
Uses — Many parts of the cashew plant are used. The cashew “ apple” , the enlarged
|
||
fully ripe fruit, may be eaten raw, or preserved as jams or sweetmeats. The juice is made
|
||
into a beverage (Brazil cajuado) or fermented into a wine. Seeds of the cashew are consumed
|
||
whole, roasted, shelled and salted, in Madeira wine, or mixed in chocolates. Shelling the
|
||
roasted seed yields the cashew nut of commerce. Seeds yield about 45% of a pale yellow,
|
||
bland, edible oil, resembling almond oil. From the shells or hulls is extracted a black, acrid,
|
||
powerful vesicant oil, used as a preservative and water-proofing agent in insulating varnishes,
|
||
in manufacture of typewriter rolls; in oil- and acid-proof cements and tiles, in brake-linings,
|
||
as an excellent lubricant in magneto armatures in airplanes, and for termite-proofing timbers.
|
||
Timber is used in furniture making, boat building, packing cases and in the production of
|
||
charcoal. Bark used in tanning. Stems exude a clear gum, Cashawa gum, used in phar
|
||
maceuticals and as substitute for gum arabic. Juice turns black on exposure to air and
|
||
provides an indelible ink. Along the coast of Orissa, shelter belts and wind breaks, planted
|
||
to stabilize sand dunes and protect the adjacent fertile agricultural land from drifting sand,
|
||
have yielded economic cashew crops 5 years after planting.
|
||
Folk medicine — The fruit bark juice and the nut oil are both said to be folk remedies
|
||
for calluses, corns, and warts, cancerous ulcers, and even elephantiasis. Anacardol and
|
||
anacardic acid have shown some activity against Walker carcinosarcoma 256. Decoction of
|
||
the astringent bark given for severe diarrhea and thrush. Old leaves are applied to skin
|
||
afflictions and bums (tannin applied to bums is hepatocarcinogenic). Oily substance from
|
||
pericarp used for cracks on the feet. Cuna Indians used the bark in herb teas for asthma,
|
||
colds, and congestion. The seed oil is believed to be alexeritic and amebicidal; used to treat
|
||
gingivitis, malaria, and syphilitic ulcers. Ayurvedic medicine recommends the fmit for
|
||
anthelmintic, aphrodisiac, ascites, dysentery, fever, inappetence, leucoderma, piles, tumors,
|
||
and obstinate ulcers.In the Gold Coast, the bark and leaves are used for sore gums and
|
||
toothache. Juice of the fmit is used for hemoptysis. Sap discutient, fungicidal, repellent.
|
||
Leaf decoction gargled for sore throat. Cubans use the resin for cold treatments. The plant
|
||
exhibits hypoglycemic activity. In Malaya, the bark decoction is used for diarrhea. In
|
||
Indonesia, older leaves are poulticed onto bums and skin diseases. Juice from the apple is
|
||
used to treat quinsy in Indonesia, dysentery in the Philippines.
|
||
20 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
Toxicity — He who cuts the wood or eats cashew nuts or stirs his drink with a cashew
|
||
swizzle stick is possibly subject to a dermatitis.
|
||
Chemistry — Per 100 g, the mature seed is reported to contain 542 calories, 7.6 g H2O,
|
||
17.4 g protein, 43.4 g fat, 29.2 g total carbohydrate, 1.4 g fiber, 2.4 g ash, 76 mg Ca, 578
|
||
mg P, 18.0 mg Fe, 0.65 mg thiamine, 0.25 mg riboflavin, 1.6 mg niacin, and 7 mg ascorbic
|
||
acid. Per 100 g, the mature seed is reported to contain 561 calories, 5.2 g H2O, 17.2 g
|
||
protein, 45.7 g fat, 29.3 g total carbohydrate, 1.4 g fiber, 2.6 g ash, 38 mg Ca, 373 mg
|
||
P, 3.8 mg Fe, 15 mg Na, 464 mg K, 60 mg beta-carotene equivalent, 0.43 mg thiamine,
|
||
0.25 mg riboflavin, and 1.8 mg niacin. Per 100 g, the mature seed is reported to contain
|
||
533 calories, 2.7 g H2O, 15.2 g protein, 37.0 g fat, 42.0 g total carbohydrate, 1.4 g fiber,
|
||
3.1 g ash, 24 mg Ca, 580 mg P, 1.8 mg Fe, 0.85 mg thiamine, 0.32 mg riboflavin, and
|
||
2.1 mg niacin. The ‘’apples” (ca. 30 to 35 kg per tree per annum) yield each 20 to 25 cc
|
||
juice, which, rich in sugar, was once fermented in India for alcohol production. The apple
|
||
contains 87.9% water, 0.2% protein, 0.1% fat, 11.6% carbohydrate, 0.2% ash, 0.01% Ca,
|
||
0.01% P, .002% Fe, 0.26% vitamin C, and 0.09% carotene. The testa contains alpha-
|
||
catechin, beta-sitosterol, and 1-epicatechin; also proanthocyanadine leucocyanadine, and
|
||
leucopelargonidine. The dark color of the nut is due to an iron-polyphenol complex. The
|
||
shell oil contains about 90% anacardic acid (C22H32O3) and 10% cardol (C32ri2704). It yields
|
||
glycerides, linoleic, palmitic, stearic, and lignoceric acids, and sitosterol. Examining 24
|
||
different cashews, Murthy and Yadava^^^ reported that the oil content of the shell ranged
|
||
from 16.6 to 32.9%, of the kernel from 34.5 to 46.8%. Reducing sugars ranged from 0.9
|
||
to 3.2%, nonreducing sugars, 1.3 to 5.8%, total sugars from 2.4 to 8.7%, starch from 4.7
|
||
to 11.2%. Gum exudates contain arabinose, galactose, rhamnose, and xylose.
|
||
Description — Spreading, evergreen, perennial tree to 12 m tall; leaves simple, alternate,
|
||
obovate, glabrous, penninerved, to 20 cm long, 15 cm wide, apically rounded or notched,
|
||
entire, short petiolate; flowers numerous in terminal panicles, 10 to 20 cm long, male or
|
||
female, green and reddish, radially symmetrical nearly; sepals 5; petals 5; stamens 10; ovary
|
||
one-locular, one-ovulate, style simple; fruit a reniform achene, about 3 cm long, 2.5 cm
|
||
wide, attached to the distal end of an enlarged pedicel and hypocarp, called the cashew-
|
||
apple. The fruit is shiny, red or yellowish, pear-shaped, soft, juicy, 10 to 20 cm long, 4 to
|
||
8 cm broad; fruit is reniform, edible, with two large white cotyledons and a small embryo,
|
||
surrounded by a hard pericarp which is cellular and oily; the oil is poisonous, causing
|
||
allergenic reactions in some humans. Flowering variable.
|
||
Germplasm — Several varieties have been selected, based on yield and nut size. Reported
|
||
from the South America and Middle America Centers of Diversity, cashew or cvs thereof
|
||
is reported to tolerate aluminum, drought, fire, insects, laterite, low pH, poor soil, sand,
|
||
shade, slope, and savanna. (2n = 42.)^^
|
||
Distribution — Native to tropical America, from Mexico and West Indies to Brazil and
|
||
Peru. The cashew tree is pantropical, especially in coastal areas.
|
||
Ecology — Ranging from Warm Temperate Moist to Tropical Very Dry to Wet Forest
|
||
Life Zones, cashew is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 7 to 42 dm (mean of 32
|
||
cases = 19.6), annual temperature of 21 to 28°C (mean of 31 cases = 25.2), and pH of
|
||
4.3 to 8.7 (mean of 21 cases = 64). Grows on sterile, very shallow, and impervious savanna
|
||
soils, on which few other trees or crops will grow, but is less tolerant of saline soil than
|
||
most coastal plants. Does not tolerate any frost. In Brazil, Johnson*^® summarizes ‘‘optimal
|
||
ecological conditions” : annual rainfall 7 to 20 dm, minimum temperature 17°C, maximum
|
||
temperature 38°C; average annual temperature 24 to 28°C, relative humidity 65 to 80%;
|
||
insolation 1,500 to 2,(XX) hr/year, wind velocity 2.25 km/hr, and dry season 2 to 5 months
|
||
long. It is recommended that cultivation be limited to nearly level areas of red-yellow podzols,
|
||
quartziferous sands, and red-yellow latosols.®^’^^®
|
||
Cultivation — Cashew germinates slowly and poorly; several nuts are usually planted to
|
||
the hole and thinned later. Propagation is generally by seeds, but may be vegetative from
|
||
21
|
||
grafting, air-layering or inarching. Planting should be done in situ as cashew seedlings do
|
||
not transplant easily. Recommended spacing is 10 x 10 m, thinned to 20 x 20 m after
|
||
about 10 years, with maximum planting of 250 trees per ha. Once established, the field
|
||
needs little care. Intercropping may be done the first few years, with cotton, peanut, or
|
||
yams. Fruits are produced after 3 years, during which lower branches and suckers are
|
||
removed. Full production is attained by the 10th year, and trees continue to bear until about
|
||
30 years old. In dry areas, like Tanzania, flowering occurs in the dry season, and fruits
|
||
mature in 2 to 3 months. Flowers and fruits in various degrees of development are often
|
||
present in same panicle.
|
||
Harvesting — From flowering stage to ripe fruit requires about 3 months. Mature fruit
|
||
falls to the ground where the “ apple” dries away. In wet weather, they are gathered each
|
||
day and dried for 1 to 3 days. Mechanical means for shelling have been unsuccessful, so
|
||
hand labor is required. Cashews are usually roasted in the shell (to make it brittle and oil
|
||
less blistering), cracked, and nuts removed and vacuum packed. In India, part of the nuts
|
||
are harvested from wild trees by people who augment their meager income from other crops
|
||
grown on poor land. Kernels are extracted by people skilled in breaking open the shells
|
||
with wooden hammers without breaking the kernels. Nuts are separated from the fleshy
|
||
pedicel and receptacle, seed coat removed by hand, and nuts dried. Fresh green nuts from
|
||
Africa and the islands off southern India are shipped to processing plants in Western In
|
||
dia.70.278
|
||
Yields and economics — Yields are said to range from 0 to 48 kg per tree per year, with
|
||
an average yield of 800 to 1,000 kg/ha. Heavy bearing trees often produce nuts considered
|
||
too small for the trade. Indian field trials showed that fertilizers could increase yields of 15-
|
||
year-old trees from less than 1 kg to tree to >4 and enabled 6-year-olds to average 5.7.
|
||
Regular applications of 250 g N, 150 g P2O5, and 150 g K2O per tree resulted in average
|
||
yield increases of 700 to 1600
|
||
kg/ha.In Pernambuco, trees produced 1.5 to 24.0 kg each
|
||
per year, averaging 10.3 kg per tree.’^® At Pacajus (Ceara, Brazil) trees average 17.4 kg/year
|
||
with one tree bearing 48 kg/year. Major producers of cashew nuts are India, Tanzania,
|
||
Mozambique, and Kenya. In 1968 India planted over 224,000 ha in cashews to supply over
|
||
200 processing factories operating all year. In 1971 India produced 90,000 MT, the bulk
|
||
exported to the U.S. and the U.S.S.R. Export price at U.S. ports was $.33/kg. India imports
|
||
green nuts from the African countries and processes them for resale. Import price in 1971
|
||
in India was 1730 rupees/MT. Cashawa Gum is obtained from the West Indies, Portuguese
|
||
East Africa, Tanzania, and Kenya.
|
||
Energy — A perennial species, the cashew has already, in the past, yielded alcohol from
|
||
the “ apple” , oil from the nut, and charcoal from the wood. Prunings from the tree and the
|
||
leaf biomass could also be used as energy sources.
|
||
Biotic factors — The cashew tree has few serious diseases or pests. The following are
|
||
reported disease-causing agents, none of which are considered of economic importance:
|
||
Aspergillus chevalieri, A. niger, Atelosaccharomyces moachoi, Balladynastrum anacardii,
|
||
Botryodiplodia theobromae, Cassytha filiformis, Cephaleuros mycoides, Ceratocystis sp.,
|
||
Cercospora anacardii, Colletotrichum capsid, Cytonaema sp., Endomyces anacardii, Fu
|
||
sarium decemcellulare, Gloeosporium sp., Glomerella cingulata, Meliola anacardii, Ne-
|
||
matospora corylii, Parasaccharomyces giganteus, Pestaliopsis disseminata, Phyllosticta
|
||
anacardicola, P. mortoni, Phytophthora palmivora, Pythium spinosum, Schizotrichum in-
|
||
dicum, Sclerotium rolfsii, Trichomerium psidii, Trichothecium roseum, Valsa eugeniae.
|
||
Cuscuta chinensis attacks the tree. Of insects, Helopeltis spp. have been reported in Tanzania.
|
||
In Brazil, high populations of the nematodes Criconemoides, Scutellonema, and Xiphinema
|
||
are reported around cashew roots. Four insects are considered major pests: the white fly
|
||
(Aleurodicus cocois), a caterpillar {Anthistarcha binoculares), a red beetle (Crimissa sp.),
|
||
and a thrip (Selenothripes rubrocinctus). Flowers are visited by flies, ants, and other insects,
|
||
which may serve as pollinators. Artificial pollination is practiced in some areas.
|
||
22 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
APIOS AMERICANA Medik. (FABACEAE) — Groundnut
|
||
Uses — An attractively flowered plant, suggestive of Wisteria, Apios has been described
|
||
by the NAS^^* as a “ useful, sweet-scented ornamental” . I have enjoyed the tubers raw or
|
||
cooked. During the potato famine of 1845, Apios was introduced to Europe (but not for the
|
||
first time). Its cultivation there as a food crop was abandoned when potato growing again
|
||
became feasible. The plant was much esteemed by early American settlers, who ate them
|
||
boiled, fried, or roasted, calling them groundnuts, potato beans, or Indian potatoes. The
|
||
Pilgrims of New England survived their first few winters thanks to the groundnut. Blackmon"^
|
||
presents several groundnut recipes. Erichsen-Brown^ recounts many of the Indian uses.
|
||
Menominee preserved the roots by boiling them in maple syrup.Even bread was made
|
||
from the root. Indians were said to eat the seeds like lentils. I would like to join the ranks
|
||
of Bill Blackmon,"^ Ed Croom, Janet Seabrook,^^’^°° and Noel Vietmeyer, and advocate
|
||
more studies of the economic potential of this interesting tuber, harvestable all year round.
|
||
I agree with Blackmon and Reynolds,"^® who, after studying Apios intensively stated: “ the
|
||
prognosis for developing A. americana as a food crop looks outstanding.” Advocates should
|
||
be aware of its weed potential, at least among uncultivated perennials, e.g., cranberries and
|
||
azaleas.
|
||
Folk medicine — According to Hartwell,the tubers were used in folk remedies for
|
||
that cancerous condition known as “ Proud Flesh” in New England. Nuts were boiled and
|
||
made into a plaster: “ For to eat out the proud flesh they (Indians) take a kind of earth nut
|
||
boyled and stamped.
|
||
23
|
||
Table 1
|
||
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION (PERCENT) OF APIOS SPECIES
|
||
Apios americana Apios fortunei Apios priceana
|
||
Fresh Dry Fresh Dry Fresh Dry
|
||
basis basis basis basis basis basis
|
||
Water 81.00 68.60 61.88
|
||
Fiber 5.20 27.37 1.20 3.82 4.95
|
||
12.99
|
||
Crude protein 3.12 16.42 4.19 13.34 2.62 6.87
|
||
Nonprotein N 0.19 1.00 0.42 1.34 0.15
|
||
0.39
|
||
Protein N 0.31 1.63 0.25 0.80 0.27
|
||
0.69
|
||
Crude fat 0.67 3.53 0.19 0.61 0.82
|
||
2.15
|
||
Ash 5.21 1.30 4.14
|
||
0.99 2.67 7.00
|
||
Carbohydrate 9.02 47.47 24.52 78.09 27.06 70.97
|
||
Starch
|
||
18.30 58.28 7.84 20.58
|
||
Alcohol-insol. solids 15.08 39.55
|
||
From Walter, W. M ., Croom, Jr., E. M ., Catignani, G. L., and Thresher, W. C.,
|
||
Compositional study of Apios priceana tubers, J. Agric. Food Chem., (Jan./Feb.), 39,
|
||
1986. Copyright 1986, American Chemical Society. With permission.
|
||
Chemistry — Some describe the plant as having a milky juice. Seabrook^^^ suggests tha
|
||
the latex could be used commercially. According to the NAS, the only published analysis^"^-
|
||
records a remarkable protein content of 17.5%. Prompted by the inadequacy of analyses,
|
||
Duke arranged for new analytical investigations. Sanchez and Duke,^^^ based on these
|
||
analyses provided by Benito de Lumen, report (ZMB): 3.75 crude fat, 5.50% ash, 17.28%
|
||
crude protein, 28.84% neutral detergent fiber, 44.63% available carbohydrate, and 1.06
|
||
nonprotein nitrogen. Per g they report 71.76 mg free amino acids, 1.26 mg nitrate, and
|
||
10.36 mg tannin. Subsequently, Walter et al.^^^ tabulated the differences in analyses between
|
||
fresh and dry tubers of A. americana, A. fortunei, and the endangered A. priceana (Table
|
||
1). Saponins have been reported in the genus, and the absence of tannins,refuted above.
|
||
Whether or not the plant exports its fixed nitrogen as ureides (allantoin, allantoic acid) as
|
||
is typical of many of the subtropical Phaseoleae or as the more soluble amides (asparagine
|
||
and glutamine) as in such temperate legumes as Lupinus, Pisum, Trifolium, and Vida remains
|
||
to be seen. Because it is suggested to have a cowpea-type Rhizobium, I predict it will be
|
||
a ureide exporter. Some calculations suggest it takes ca. 2 1/2 times as much water (remember
|
||
this is an aquaphyte) to export N as ureides. But the ureides are more economical with a
|
||
C:N ratio ca. 1:1; cf. 1:1 for asparagine, 5:2 for glutamine.^*^ Many legume sprouts are rich
|
||
in allantoin, widely regarded as a vulnerary medicinal compound. According to the Merck
|
||
Index, allantoin is a product of purine metabolism in animals, while it is prepared synthet
|
||
ically by the oxidation of uric acid with alkaline potassium permanganate. Medical and
|
||
veterinary use — “ Has been used topically in suppurating wounds, resistant ulcers, and to
|
||
stimulate growth of healthy tissue (Merck & Co.^‘°). Dorland’s Illustrated Medical Dictionary
|
||
puts it differently:
|
||
allantoin (ah-lan'to-in). Chemical name: 5-ureidohydantoin. A white crystallizable substance,
|
||
C4H6N4O3, the diureide of glyoxylic acid, found in allantoic fluid, fetal urine, and many
|
||
plants, and as a urinary excretion product of purine metabolism in most mammals but not
|
||
in man or the higher apes. It is produced synthetically by the oxidation of uric acid, and was
|
||
once used to encourage epithelial formation in wounds and ulcers and in osteomyelitis. It is
|
||
the active substance in maggot treatment, being secreted by the maggots as a product of
|
||
purine metabolism.
|
||
The direct role of allantoin in gout, if any, should be of great interest to those American
|
||
24
|
||
Handbook of Nuts
|
||
males who have gout, especially if they ingest large quantities of legume sprouts or comfrey.
|
||
Apios produces a complex pterocarpan that appears structurally similar to glyceollin III, a
|
||
phytoalexin of the cultivated soybean.
|
||
Description — Twining, herbaceous vine, the stems short-pubescent to glabrate, 1 to 3
|
||
m long, the rhizomes moniliform, with numerous fleshy tubers 1 to 8 cm thick. (Some
|
||
plants have fleshy roots only, others both fleshy roots and tubers, and others only tubers.)
|
||
In winter, the stems have a distinctive brown color and are locally flattened, enabling the
|
||
experienced collector to distinguish it from honeysuckle. Leaves once-pinnate, 1 to 2 dm
|
||
long; leaflets 5 to 7, ovate or ovate-lanceolate to lanceolate, ca. 3 to 6 cm long, glabrous
|
||
to short-pubescent, obscurely stipellate; petioles mostly 2 to 7 cm long; stipules setaceous,
|
||
soon deciduous, 4 to 6 mm long. Inflorescence 5 to 15 cm long, nodes swollen, flowers 1
|
||
to 2 per node, subtended by linear-subulate bracts 2 to 2.5 mm long; pedicels 1 to 4 mm
|
||
long with 2 linear-subulate bractlets near apex. Calyx sparsely short-pubescent, broadly
|
||
campanulate, tube ca. 3 mm long; petals nearly white to brownish purple, the standard
|
||
obovate or orbicular to obcordate, reflexed, obscurely auricled, 9 to 13 mm long, the wings
|
||
shorter, slightly auricled, the keel strongly incurved; stamens diadelphous, 1 and 1. Legume
|
||
linear, 5 to 15 cm long, 4 to 7 mm broad, 2 to 12-seeded, dehiscing by 2 spirally twisted
|
||
valves.Germination cryptocotylar.^^^’^^^
|
||
Germplasm — Reported from the North American Center of Diversity, groundnut, or
|
||
CVS thereof, is reported to tolerate acid and bog soils, partial shade, slopes, and waterlogging.
|
||
In 1982, the Plant Introduction Officer of the USDA suggested to me the possibility of
|
||
mounting a germplasm expedition to collect germplasm of this species, and its endangered
|
||
relative, Apios priceana Robinson, which produces a single large tuber instead of a string
|
||
of small tubers. NAS^^‘ speculates that a bush-like mutant may be found in nature. Seedlings
|
||
from Tennessee had 22 chromosomes, while plants from the northern part of the range were
|
||
triploid. Blackmon^® and Reynolds^”^^ discuss the variation in germplasm they have already
|
||
assembled. (2n = 22.)
|
||
Distribution — Widely distributed in eastern Canada and the U.S. (often around ancient
|
||
Indian campsites) (Florida, Texas, to Nova Scotia, Minnesota, and Colorado). Usually in
|
||
low damp bottomland or riparian woods and thickets. Seems to be associated with Alnus in
|
||
Rocky Gorge Reservoir, Maryland, as well as on the eastern shore of Maryland. Unfortu
|
||
nately, it can become a serious weed in cranberry plots. Uninfested bogs yielded nearly 14
|
||
MT/ha cranberries, whereas herbicide plots yielded only ca. 670 to 2,300 kg/ha cranberry.
|
||
Perhaps the cranberry salesmen could find a market for the groundnuts, since both are Native
|
||
American food plants.
|
||
Ecology — Ranging from Subtropical Dry through Cool Temperate Forest Life Zones,
|
||
groundnut is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 9.7 to 11.7 dm (mean of 2 cases
|
||
= 10.7), annual temperature of 9.9 to 20.3°C (mean of 2 cases = 15.1), and pH of 4.5
|
||
to 7.0 (mean of 2 cases = 5.8). Produces well in South Florida and Louisiana. I have
|
||
successfully germinated fall harvested seed, after soaking in hot water, room temperature
|
||
water, or frozen water, seeds that sunk and seeds that floated after soaking. These took 4
|
||
months from harvest to germination, whereas their unsoaked counterparts had still not
|
||
germinated. Fall-harvested seed apparently exhibit no dormancy when planted in spring.
|
||
Cultivation — According to Vilmorin-Andrieux,^^^ since seed do not ripen in France, it
|
||
is multiplied by division in March and April, or in the latter part of summer. Divisions are
|
||
planted in good, light, well-drained soil 1 to 1.5 m apart in every direction. Reynolds^^^
|
||
spaced his seedlings at 2 x 3 feet, tubers at 3 x 3 feet. Stems should be supported by
|
||
poles or stakes. Ground should be kept free of weeds by an occasional hoeing. Cultivation,
|
||
if overdone, might discourage the rhizomes and their tubers. Seedlings require at least 2
|
||
years growth and a minimum photoperiod of 14 hr to induce flowering.Tuber dormancy
|
||
can be broken by chilling (several months at 35 to 40°F) or using ethylene.
|
||
25
|
||
Harvesting — According to Vilmorin-Andrieux,^^^ the tubers are not large enough to be
|
||
gathered for use until the second or third year after planting. Blackman’s results in Louisiana
|
||
show this is not true where there is a long growing season. Once large enough, they can
|
||
be dug at any time of the year when the ground is not frozen. If carefully dug, strings of
|
||
four score tubers can be achieved.
|
||
Yields and economics — According to Elliott,Asa Gray once said that if advanced
|
||
civilization had started in North America instead of the Old World, the groundnut would
|
||
have been the first tuber to be developed and cultivated. Femald, Kinsey, and Rollins^^"^
|
||
recount an anecdote indicating the economic value of the groundnuts to the pilgrims, “ The
|
||
great value to the colonists of this ready food is furtlier indicated by a reputed town law,
|
||
which in 1654 ordered that, if an Indian dug Groundnuts on English land, he was to be set
|
||
in stocks, and for a second offence, to be whipped.’’ Yields of 30 MT per acre were
|
||
erroneously reported (should have been 30 MT/ha) for cranberry bog weed populations.
|
||
Reynolds has attained the equivalent of ca 40 MT/ha from tubers in 1-year studies in
|
||
Louisiana.Some of his plants yielded more than 3 kg tubers.
|
||
Energy — Currently, this looks like a poor prospect for biomass production. However,
|
||
one should at least consider the possibility of developing the crop for marginal habitat
|
||
(swamp), the tubers as the main crop; the aerial biomass, as residue, might be used for
|
||
production of rubber, leaf protein, and power alcohol. The nodulated roots fix nitrogen.
|
||
Around Rocky Gorge Reservoir, in Maryland, the plant is most commonly intertwined in
|
||
N-fixing
|
||
Alnus species. Nodules were recorded on A. americana, but root-nodule location
|
||
relative to tuber formation was not specified. Root hairs are said to be lacking on secondary
|
||
roots of mature plants. Four rhizobial strains isolated from A. americana nodules were not
|
||
tested on the host, but since they produced nodules on cowpea plants, the species was
|
||
considered a member of the cowpea miscellany. The rhizobia are described as monotrichously
|
||
flagellated rods with cowpea-type, slow cultural growth.® H. Keyser-^^ suggests conserva
|
||
tively that Apios fixes > 1(X) kg N per ha. With no idea of the solubility of N fixed by the
|
||
groundnut, I recommend it be studied as a potential intercrop for marsh and aquatic plants,
|
||
especially rice and wild rice. It might also be considered for cultivation around the edges
|
||
of reservoirs used for irrigation, hence adding a small token of nitrogen to the irrigation
|
||
waters. Because of their tolerance to both acidity and waterlogging, they might be especially
|
||
advantageous around impoundments in strip-mine reclamations. Certainly the scorings by
|
||
Roth et al.^^*^ do not speak well for the energy potential of Apios. They give it a score of
|
||
14, in a system whereby only species receiving scores of 11 or less were regarded as potential
|
||
renewable energy sources.
|
||
Biotic Factors — Agriculture Handbook No. 165"^ lists the following diseases affecting
|
||
this species: Alternaria sp. (leaf spot), Cercospora tuberosa (leaf spot), Erysiphe polygoni
|
||
(powdery mildew), Microsphaera dijfusa, Phymatotrichum omnivorum, and Puccinia an-
|
||
dropogonis var. onobrychidis (rust). Reynolds^^^ reported powdery mildew, virus, possibly
|
||
anthracnose, root-knot nematodes, mealy bugs, spider mites, aphids, white flies, leaf-eating
|
||
caterpillars, cucumber beetles, grasshoppers, stink bugs, and fire ants. In some cases, the
|
||
fire ants are responsible for mealy bug infestations. Although most Erythrinae are bird
|
||
pollinated, Apios seems to be mostly bee pollinated.
|
||
26 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
ARECA CATECHU L. (ARECACEAE) — Betel-Nut Palm, Areca, Areca-Nut
|
||
Uses — Chief use of Betel-nut is as a breath sweetening masticatory, enjoyed for centuries
|
||
by about one-tenth the human population. Often slices of the nut, together with a little lime
|
||
and other ingredients (cardamom, camphor, cutch, clove, gambier, tobacco) according to
|
||
taste, are folded in a Betel Pepper leaf {Piper betel) and fastened with a clove. Sometimes
|
||
nuts are ground up with other materials and carried about in a pouch similar to a tobacco
|
||
pouch. Betel chewing is often considered as an after-dinner or social affair. Chewing colors
|
||
the saliva red and stains the teeth and gums black, eventually destroying the teeth, at least
|
||
according to one school of thought. Used in the tanning industry. An extraction of areca-
|
||
nuts makes black and red dyes. Dried nuts are said to sweeten the breath, strengthen the
|
||
gums, and improve the appetite and taste. Husks are the most important by-product, being
|
||
used for insulating wool, boards, and for manufacturing furfural. Innoculated with yeast
|
||
{Saccharomyces cervisiae), leaves used as fermentation stimulant in industrial alcohol pro
|
||
duction. Large, tough, sheathing parts of leaf-bases, used as substitute for cardboard or
|
||
strawboard for protecting packages; also used in the Philippines for hats, inner soles for
|
||
slippers, book-covers, and makes an excellent paper pulp.®^
|
||
Folk medicine — The nut, in the form or ghees, powders, bolmes, or enemas, is said
|
||
to be a folk remedy for abdominal tumors,Reported to be astringent, carminative, deob
|
||
struent, dentrifrice, detergent, diaphoretic, diuretic, intoxicant, laxative, masticatory, miotic,
|
||
panacea, poison, preventative (malaria; mephitis), stomachic, taeniacide, taenifuge, tonic,
|
||
and vermifuge, betel nut is a folk remedy for ascariasis, beriberi, cancer (esophagus), cholera,
|
||
circulation problems, colic, diarrhea, dropsy, dysentery, dyspepsia, eruption, fistula, im
|
||
petigo, malaria, oliguria, rhagades, scabies, smallpox, sores, stomachache, syphilis, and
|
||
tumors (abdomen).^' Nuts are astringent, stimulant, and a powerful anthelmintic, especially
|
||
in veterinary practice. They are also considered digestive, emmenagogue, and are recom
|
||
mended as cardiac, nervine tonic, and as an astringent lotion for eyes, causing dilation of
|
||
the pupil; once used for glaucoma. Externally, applied to ulcers, bleeding gums, and urinary
|
||
discharges. Burned and powdered nuts used as a dentifrice in Europe. Once used as antidote
|
||
to abrin poisoning. Mixed with sugar and coriander, the nuts are given to induce labor in
|
||
Iran.‘^® Unripe fruits are cooling, laxative, and carminative.®^
|
||
Chemistry — Nuts contain the alkaloids, arecoline, arecaine and arecolidine, isoguvacine,
|
||
guvacine, guvacoline; tannins (18%), fats (1417%), carbohydrates, and proteins, and some
|
||
Vitamin A.
|
||
27
|
||
Toxicity — Per 100 g, the shoot is reported to contain 43 calories, 86.4 g H2O, 3.3 g
|
||
protein, 0.3 g fat, 9.0 g total carbohydrate, 1.0 g ash, 6 mg Ca, 89 mg P, and 2.0 mg Fe.
|
||
Per 100 g, the mature seed is reported to contain 394 calories, 12.3 g H2O, 6.0 g protein,
|
||
10.8 g fat, 69.4 g total carbohydrate, 15.9 g fiber, 1.5 g ash, 542 mg Ca, 63 mg P, 5.7
|
||
mg Fe, 76 mg Na, 446 mg K, 0.17 mg thiamine, 0.69 mg riboflavin, 0.6 mg niacin, and
|
||
a trace of ascorbic acid. Classified by the FDA {Health Foods Business, June, 1978) as an
|
||
Herb of Undefined Safety. Excessive use of betel-nut causes loss of appetite, salivation,
|
||
and general degeneration of the body. Arecaine is poisonous and affects respiration and the
|
||
heart, increases peristalsis of intestines, and causes tetanic convulsions.^^’^^^
|
||
Description — Tall, slender-stemmed palm, up to 30 m, 30 to 45 cm in diameter; stem
|
||
smooth, whitish, surmounted by crown of pinnate leaves; leaves 0.9 to 1.5 m long, dark-
|
||
green, with the upper pinnae confluent; lower portion of petiole expanded into a broad,
|
||
tough, sheath-like structure; inflorescence a spadix encased in a spathe, rachis much-branched
|
||
bearing male and female flowers; male flowers small and numerous, female ones much
|
||
larger; fruit a nut, varying in shape from flat to conical or spherical, 5 to 6.5 cm long, 3.7
|
||
to 5 cm across, yellow, reddish-yellow to brilliant orange when ripe, size of a nutmeg and
|
||
with similar internal markings; pericarp hard and fibrous (husk), 65% of fruit mass; kernel
|
||
(areca-nut), 35% of fruit, grayish-brown, 2.5 to 3.7 cm in diameter, single per fruit, with
|
||
thin seed-coat and large ruminate endosperm. Flower and fruit seasons variable.
|
||
Germplasm — Reported from the Indochina-Indonesia Center of Diversity, the betel
|
||
palm, or cvs thereof, is reported to tolerate disease, insects, laterite, poor soil, shade, and
|
||
slope. Varieties are selected on basis of size and shape of fruits and nuts, hardness and
|
||
astringency of nuts, and various properties of the nuts. Some varieties have large, flat,
|
||
almost bitter nuts, while others are conical or spherical and so bland in taste as to be called
|
||
“ sweet areca-nuts” (A. catechu var. deliciosa). Areca catechu forma communis — fruits
|
||
orange-red, globose-ovoid, or ovoid-ellipsoid, 4 to 5 cm long, 3 to 4 cm broad; seed
|
||
subglobose, with a more or less flattish base. Areca catechu var. silvática — fruit ovoid-
|
||
ellipsoid, rather ventricose, smaller than usual, 4 cm long, 3 cm or less broad; seed globose-
|
||
form from which the commonly cultivated palm has been derived. Areca catechu var.
|
||
batanensis — stems shorter and thicker than in forma communis, spadix denser, with shorter
|
||
floriderous branches. Areca catechu var. longicarpa — fruit narrowly ellipsoid, 5.5 to 7
|
||
cm long, 2.5 cm broad; seed ovoid-conical, with blunt apex and flat base, slightly longer
|
||
than broad. Areca catechu var. semisilvatica, A. catechu var. alba and A. catechu var.
|
||
portoricensis are other varieties commonly cultivated. (2n = 32.).®^’^^*
|
||
Distribution — Areca-nut palm is considered native to Malaysia, where it is cultivated
|
||
extensively. It is also found throughout the East Indies and Philippines In India, Sri Lanka,
|
||
Assam, Burma, Madagascar, and East Africa, it is cultivated from the coastal areas up to
|
||
about 1,000 m. Plants are often spontaneous and occur in second-growth forests, but are
|
||
rarely found distant from cultivation.
|
||
Ecology — Ranging from Subtropical Dry to Wet through Tropical Very Dry to Wet
|
||
Forest Life Zones, betel nut is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 6.4 to 42.9 dm
|
||
(mean of 13 cases = 20.6, annual temperature of 21.3 to 27.5°C (mean of 13 cases =
|
||
25.9°C), and pH of 5.0 to 8.0 (mean of 10 cases = 6.4). It requires a moist tropical climate,
|
||
thriving best at low altitudes, but will tolerate moderate elevations on mountains. Grows in
|
||
areas with rainfall of 50 cm, if soil is well-drained, but will grow in drier areas with only
|
||
5 dm annual rainfall, if suitably irrigated. Uniform distribution of rainfall is very important.
|
||
Grows in many types of soil varying in texture from laterite to loamy, provided soil has
|
||
thorough drainage, yet has the ability to retain optimum moisture required by the palm.
|
||
Light and sandy soils are unsuitable unless copiously irrigated and manured. Maximum
|
||
temperatures should not exceed 38°C, the optimum temperature for growth being a continuous
|
||
temperate range from 15.5 to 38°C. These palms are unable to withstand extreme temperatures
|
||
or a wide variance of daily temperature.
|
||
Handbook of Nuts
|
||
28
|
||
Cultivation — Propagation is exclusively from seeds. In southern India and Malaysia,
|
||
fruits from carefully selected trees are gathered from 25- to 30-year-old trees. In Assam and
|
||
Bengal, no selection is made. In other areas the middle bunch of fruits is used for seed,
|
||
and in still other areas the last bunch of the season is preferred. In any case the ripe fruits
|
||
are gathered in November, dried in the sun for 1 to 2 days, or in shade for 3 to 7 days
|
||
before being sown. Drying the nuts does not increase germination of seeds. Well-tilled land
|
||
in a well-drained area in the garden or along an irrigation channel makes a good bed for
|
||
sowing seed. Seeds sown in rows 15 to 22 cm apart, or in groups of 20 to 50 seeds in pits,
|
||
or tied up in plantain leaves in rich moist soil to germinate; rarely planted in situ. However,
|
||
seeds may fall from tree and germinate in situ. Growth rate of seedling varies, and in about
|
||
3 months to 2 years after planting, seedlings are ready to transplant to nursery beds; sometimes
|
||
up to 4 years may be needed for this stage. Areca-nut is a shade-loving plant and is usually
|
||
grown as a mixed crop with fruit trees, such as mango, guava, jackfruit, orange, plantain,
|
||
or coconut. Usually a shade crop, such as bananas, is planted first, spaced about 2.7 m
|
||
apart in a north-south direction, and allowed to become well-established before transplanting
|
||
the areca-nut seedlings. Young seedlings are planted in nursery beds 30 x 30 cm, with 3
|
||
rows per bed, about 1000 to 1500 trees per ha. After about 20 years, young seedlings are
|
||
planted between trees and between rows to replace older palms which have become unpro
|
||
ductive. After seedlings are planted, the bed is mulched with green or dry leaves, cattle
|
||
dung, wood ashes, or groundnut cake. Beds are made only in the rainy season and are kept
|
||
well-irrigated in the summer. Hoeing, weeding and interculture may be practiced. Pepper
|
||
vines {Piper betel) and cardamon may be trained to the trees or grown between them.
|
||
Farmyard manure, groundnut cake, ammonium sulfate, superphosphate and potassium sulfate
|
||
have been found to be beneficial. Also leaf manure and green manure may be used.^^*
|
||
Harvesting — Palms begin to flower about the 7th year after sowing seed, and reach full
|
||
production in about 10 to 15 years. With best conditions, trees may begin flowering the 4th
|
||
year. A plantation may take 30 years to reach maturity. Fruiting life of a tree is between
|
||
30 to 60 years after maturity, but trees may live for 60 to 100 years. Economical life span
|
||
in India is 45 to 70 years. In different regions there are well-defined seasons for flowering
|
||
and corresponding fruiting seasons. Because of the tall, slender nature of the palm, harvesting
|
||
the nuts requires skill and dexterity. Primitive methods are often employed. In India certain
|
||
classes of people who climb palms fast are employed. Sometimes bamboo poles with sickles
|
||
attached are used to cut the bunches. In Malaysia, trained monkeys are used. Leaves of the
|
||
palm (usually 4 to 7) begin to drop in December at intervals of 3 weeks, until June.
|
||
Inflorescences appear in the axils of such leaves, and although as many as five spadices
|
||
may appear, usually there are only 2 or 3 mature fruits. Spathes open soon after shedding
|
||
of leaves, and fruits ripen 8 to 11 months later. (Fruits take 6 to 8 months to ripen.) Nuts
|
||
harvested when bright red. Usually the shedding of a few nuts from a bunch is sufficient
|
||
indication to harvest the whole bunch. Harvesting season varies with 2 or 3 pickings made
|
||
in each season: Bombay and Sri Lanka, from August to March; Mysore, from August to
|
||
January; Bengal, from October to January. In India, areca-nuts are consumed raw or cured;
|
||
in other areas ripe nuts are masticated during the harvest season. Surplus nuts are stored in
|
||
pits in soil or water in earthenware jars for 5 to 7 months, and during the off-season are
|
||
taken out and chewed. Ripe nuts may also be dehusked, cut and dried, or just dried whole
|
||
in the sun for 6 to 7 weeks, or may be perfumed by smoke or benzoin. Nuts may be
|
||
processed, a costly and laborious operation on a commercial scale, to improve their color,
|
||
taste, palatability, and keeping quality. When properly cured and dried, nuts are dark-brown
|
||
with glossy finish.
|
||
Yields and economics — Each tree yields 2 to 3 bunches per year, containing 150 to
|
||
250 fruits; varieties with larger fruits may have 50 to 100 fruits per bunch. Fruits weigh
|
||
from 1.4 to 2.2 kg per 100 fruits. Yield per hectare with 1,000 trees is 440,000 to 750,000
|
||
29
|
||
fruits, or about 15 to 25 cwt of dried areca-nuts. Average yield of dried or cured nuts per
|
||
annum in Mysore is about 17.5 cwt/ha. India and Pakistan are the major producers of areca-
|
||
nuts, where most of the production is consumed domestically. It is also an item of internal
|
||
commerce in the Malay Archipelago and the Philippines. Nuts are exported in large quantities
|
||
from Java, Sumatra, Singapore, and other Malaysian regions to India. Sri Lanka exports to
|
||
India and the U.S. In 1969 to 1970 Pakistan grew about 1,000,000 acres of betel-nut,
|
||
producing about 26,500 long tons of nuts. Bavappa et al.^^ suggest that there are 184,000
|
||
ha cultivated to Areca, with production of ca. 191,000 MT/year with a value of 2,500 million
|
||
rupees. Improved cultural practices are leading to higher yields of nuts. Higher-yielding and
|
||
more disease-resistant plants are being developed through breeding.
|
||
Energy — Debris from the plants could serve as a crude energy source. With 2000 to
|
||
3000 trees per hectare or more, there might be 8,000 to 21,000 leaves falling between June
|
||
and December.^® Fallen spathes and spadices might also be viewed as energy sources. Much
|
||
energy is consumed in the boiling and drying of this widely used narcotic. On top of this,
|
||
there might be 1,500 to 2,500 kg/ha dried nuts. In preparing the kernels for market, there
|
||
is much husk remaining as a by-product, containing nearly 50% cellulose. The wood of cull
|
||
trees may be used for firewood.
|
||
Biotic factors — The two most serious fungal diseases of this palm are Phytophthora
|
||
omnivorum var. arecae (Koleroga disease, a fruit rot) and Ganoderma lucidum (Foot rot).
|
||
Other fungal diseases include: Alternaría tenuis, Aspergillus niger arecae (causing a storage
|
||
disease), Botryodiplodia theobromae, Brachysporum arecae, Ceratostomella paradoza, Col
|
||
letotrichum catechu (seedling blight), Coniothyrium arecae, Dendryphium catechu, Exo-
|
||
sporium arecae, Gloeosporium catechu, Lenzites striata, Lichenophoma arecae, Melanconium
|
||
palmarum, Montagnellina catechu, Mycosphaerella sp., Nigrospora sphaerica, Phyllosticta
|
||
arecae, Polyporus ostreiformis, P. zonalis, Stagonospora arecae, Thielaviopsis paradoxa
|
||
(causes length-wise splitting of stem), Torula herbarum, Ustulina zonata. Areca-nut is also
|
||
attacked by the bacterium Xanthosomas vasculorum. In Thailand, the following nematodes
|
||
are known to attack arecanut: Rotylenchulus sp., Tylenchorhynchus dactylurus, Tylenchus
|
||
sp., and Xiphinema insigne. In Mysore and Malaysia, the Rhinoceros beetle {Orcytes rhi
|
||
noceros), leaf-eating caterpillar (Nephantis serinapa), borer {Arceerns fasciculatus), white
|
||
ants, and mites cause minor damage.
|
||
Handbook of Nuts
|
||
30
|
||
ARENGA PINNATA (Wurmb) Merr. (ARECACEAE) — Sugar Palm, Kaong, Black Sugar
|
||
Palm
|
||
Syn.: Arenga saccharifera Labill.
|
||
- RDuHe^
|
||
Uses — Sugar palm is grown for its sugar, starch, and fiber. Sap contains 20 to 40%
|
||
more sucrose than average sugarcane. Juice of the outer covering of fruit is highly corrosive
|
||
and may cause pain and skin inflammation. Pith of the stem is source of sago starch. Sap
|
||
may be made into a refreshing fresh drink, or fermented into palm wine, upon distillation
|
||
yielding Arrack. Alcohol and vinegar may also be made from the sap. Terminal bud or
|
||
“ cabbage” is eaten in salads, raw or cooked. Etiolated leaves, petioles, and pith of young
|
||
stems eaten in soups or fried, or used as a pickled preserve. Half-ripe fruits are pruned to
|
||
remove irritating crystals in pericarp; seeds washed and seedcoat removed; endosperm is
|
||
soaked in lime water for several days and finally boiled in sugary or spicy solutions and
|
||
eaten as sweetmeats. Young leaf-sheaths produce a valuable fiber used in industrial work.
|
||
Leaves are used to thatch roofs and are quite durable; leaflets are used for rough brooms
|
||
and are sometimes woven into baskets. “ Wood” is used for water p i p e s .J u i c e of outer
|
||
fleshy covering of fruit is used as a fish poison.
|
||
Folk medicine — Reported to be intoxicant and piscicide.^^ Sap considered lactogenic
|
||
in Malaysia. Javanese use a root decoction for kidney stones. Fermented sap taken for
|
||
tuberculosis in the Philippines and Indonesia; for sprue, dysentery, constipation, and he
|
||
morrhoids in Java. The felt-like tomentum at the leaf-base is used as a styptic.^ Roots used
|
||
to make a medicine for stone in the bladder in Java. The fresh, sweet toddy used for chronic
|
||
31
|
||
constipation, phthisis, and dysentery; lactagogue. Applied to wounds as a hemostatic.
|
||
Diuretic and antithermic; fresh unfermented sap is a purgative and a remedy for sprue in
|
||
Indonesia. Juice of ripe fruit is poisonous. Roots are a treatment against bronchitis and
|
||
gravel.
|
||
Chemistry — Per 100 g, the shoot is reported to contain 19 calories, 94.7 g H2O, 0.1
|
||
g protein, 0.2 g fat, 4.9 g total carbohydrate, 0.5 g fiber, 0.1 g ash, 21 mg Ca, 3 mg P,
|
||
00.5 mg Fe, 2 mg Na, 7 mg K, 0.01 mg riboflavin, and 0.1 mg niacin.*^
|
||
Description — Tall, stout palm, 8 to 15 m tall, bole solitary, straight, 40 to 50 cm in
|
||
diameter; old leaf-bases covering trunk with mat of tough, black fibers and long spines;
|
||
leaves ascending, pinnate, up to 9.1 m long, 3.1 m wide, with 100 or more pairs of linear
|
||
leaflets, leaflets whitish or scurfy beneath, dark-green above, 1 to 1.5 m long, 6 to 8 cm
|
||
(or more) wide, lobed or jagged at apex, auricled at base; petioles 1.5 to 2 m long, very
|
||
stout, base covered with black fibers and weak spines; plants monoecious, bearing very
|
||
large pendulous interfoliar inflorescences arising from leaf axils; female inflorescence usually
|
||
preceding male; male and female inflorescence, which eventually become 1 to 3.3 m long,
|
||
at first ensheathed in bud by 5 to 7 lanceolate oblong, imbricated, caducous bracts; inflo
|
||
rescence emerging from spathes in 6 to 9 weeks; peduncle large; flowers opening first at
|
||
base of each branch and successively toward apex; flowers numerous, sessile, either male
|
||
or female; female flowers usually solitary, male solitary or paired, rarely in threes, occurring
|
||
in separate inflorescences; in bisexual flowers, stamens usually abortive; male flowers scent
|
||
less, with 3 green imbricated, persistent sepals, one-fourth length of petals, apex broadly
|
||
acute, thin-margined; petals 3 to 4, navicular, valvate, 2.5 cm long, red-brown or red-purple
|
||
on outside, yellow on inside; stamens yellow, numerous, with elongated apiculate anthers,
|
||
borne on short filaments; no rudimentary ovary; female flowers scentless, 3 unequal green
|
||
imbricated orbicular sepals, one-third length of petals, persistent; petals coriaceous, 1.5 to
|
||
2.5 cm long, light-green,ovate, or triangular, valvate, persistent with sepals as cupule at
|
||
base of fruit; staminodes absent, or if present, sometimes producing nectar; fruit obovoid
|
||
to subglobose, smooth, 5 to 6 cm in diameter, with depressed trigonous upper surface;
|
||
exocarp yellow or yellow-brown, coriaceous; mesocarp fleshy, whitish, gelatinous, very
|
||
acid due to stinging crystals; endocarp black, smooth, thin, stony; seeds 2 to 3 per fruit,
|
||
dull-metallic gray-brown, trigonous, oblong, 2.5 to 3.5 cm long, 2 to 2.5 cm wide, with
|
||
copious endosperm. Flowers and fruits year-round.
|
||
Germplasm — Reported from the Indochina-Indonesia and Hindustani Centers of Di
|
||
versity, sugar palm, or cvs thereof, is reported to tolerate disease, drought, fungus, high
|
||
pH, insects, poor soil, shade, and slope.Several forms of the sugar palm exist in Malaya,
|
||
varying mainly in how long is required for plants to begin flowering.(2 n = 26,32.)
|
||
Distribution — Native from eastern India and Ceylon, through Bangladesh, Burma,
|
||
Thailand, southern China, Hainan, Malay Peninsula to New Guinea and Guam. Extensively
|
||
cultivated in India.
|
||
Ecology — Ranging from Subtropical Dry to Moist through Tropical Dry to Wet Forest
|
||
Life Zones, sugar palm is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 7 to 40 dm (mean of
|
||
8 cases = 19.1), annual temperature of 19 to 2TC (mean of 8 cases = 24.5), and pH of
|
||
5.0 to 8.0 (mean of 5 cases = 6.4).®^ More or less a forest tree, but not restricted to jungles;
|
||
it can be grown on very poor rocky hillsides and in waste places. It flourishes best in humid
|
||
tropics in a rich moist soil, from sea-level to elevations of 1,200 m, being grown at higher
|
||
elevations than coconut. It is little subject to drought damage, typhoons, insect pests, or
|
||
fungal diseases. Trees are hardy, self-sustaining, growing readily in well-drained soil of
|
||
dark cool valleys, along banks of mountain streams, along forest margins and on partially
|
||
open hillsides. It develops more slowly in flat, exposed, or sunny habitats.
|
||
Cultivation — In forests of Indo-Malaysia, ripe fruits are distributed by various fruit
|
||
bats, civet cats, and wild swine. Trees are only in semi-cultivation, mainly since trees require
|
||
32 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
many years to begin to be useful. When propagated, seed are used, but it has never been
|
||
scientifically cultivated. Growing it in plantations for its fiber is too costly.
|
||
Harvesting — Various products may be harvested from the sugar palm. Trees reach
|
||
maturity (flowering stage) in 6 to 12 years and continue to flower for about 15 years before
|
||
replanting. Flowering is quite irregular. From flowering to ripe fruit takes about 2 years,
|
||
so the harvest period for the fruit extends over the entire year. Most important industrial
|
||
product is the black, horsehair-like tough fiber, called gomuta, yunot, or cabo negro, pro
|
||
duced at base of petioles in large quantities. It is used in manufacture of a very durable rope
|
||
used in fresh-and salt-water and for thatching houses; known to last 100 years in the Phil
|
||
ippines. Fiber also widely used for filters and for caulking ships. Cost of fiber is high,
|
||
depending on grade and length of fiber, but is in demand in Europe for industrial purposes.
|
||
Stiffer fibers are used in Philippines to make floor and hair brushes, and brushes for grooming
|
||
horses. Thatch-like raincoats are sometimes made from it. Associated with the fibers at basal
|
||
parts of petiole is a soft, dry, light, punky substance, called barok, varying in color from
|
||
white to dark shades, used in caulking boats and as a tinder, made by soaking in juice of
|
||
banana or lye made from ashes of Vitex negundo and then dried; 60 to 75 tons of this
|
||
exported annually from Java to Singapore. Palms commonly tapped for the sweet sap used
|
||
for producing sugar, vinegar, wine, or alcohol. Trees for sugar production are selected and
|
||
the young inflorescences beaten with a stick or wooden mallet for a short time each day for
|
||
2 to 3 weeks, thus producing wound tissue and stimulating the flow of sap to the injured
|
||
area. Starch in the trunks is converted into sugar and moves into the inflorescence when it
|
||
begins to develop. Thus by wounding young inflorescences, the flow of sugar to the wounded
|
||
tissue can be regulated. The stalk is then cut off at base of the inflorescence and the exuding
|
||
sap collected. A thin slice is removed from the wounded end of the stalk once or twice a
|
||
day during sap flow. Flow generally diminishes from 10 to 12 to 2 €/day after 2 1/2 months;
|
||
some plants yield about 2.8 €/day for about 2 years. Fresh sap is clear with pleasant taste
|
||
and makes a refreshing drink. Kept awhile, it becomes turbid and acid, and upon fermen
|
||
tation, acquires an intoxicating quality. Flavored with bark of other trees, large quantities
|
||
of the liquor are consumed. Sap is allowed to ferment, producing “ tuba” , a palm wine, a
|
||
popular drink in Philippines; it is supposed to have curative properties. Fermentation begins
|
||
in the bamboo’s tubes in which sap is collected and is usually well-advanced when the
|
||
product is gathered. Much is converted into a good quality vinegar; alcohol is also distilled
|
||
from the “ tuba” . Sugar is made by boiling the sweet, unfermented sap, using a new bamboo
|
||
joint for the sap each day. To prevent fermentation in the tube, a little crushed ginger or
|
||
crushed chili-pepper fruit is added to the bamboo joint. Sometimes in Java, bamboo joints
|
||
are smoked first to reduce fermentation. Sugar is manufactured by boiling thickened juice
|
||
in an open kettle until the liquid solidifies when dropped on cold surface. Sugar in the
|
||
Philippines is brown and enters into local commerce in very limited quantities. Yield of
|
||
sugar is about 20 tons/ha, with 150 to 200 trees/ha. In Java and elsewhere, old trees no
|
||
longer productive of sugar are felled and cut up into short sections, or the pith is scooped
|
||
out of trunks cut lengthwise. Fibrous pith is pulverized and washed to remove fibrous material
|
||
and other impurities. Starch particles in suspension are drawn off and sago starch removed
|
||
and dried in sun. Starch is light gray-white. A type of tapioca may be prepared from this
|
||
starch by dropping wet pellets of it on hot plates. Debris, after starch is removed, is boiled
|
||
and used for hog feed. In Luzon, starch is obtained only from male or sterile trees. Yield
|
||
of sago meal is about 67.5 kg per tree. Yields of starch vary greatly, with an average yield
|
||
of 50 to 75 kg per tree.^^^
|
||
Yields and economics — Specific yields are stated above for each product. Products of
|
||
this palm are widely used in areas where it grows, but only the fibers are in international
|
||
commerce. Sugar and starch, and their by-products are consumed locally, and in very large
|
||
quantities.
|
||
33
|
||
Energy — In Palms as Energy Sources, Duke^' reports that a single sugar palm can yield
|
||
2.8 € (sugar content 5 to 8%) toddy per day over a period of about two months. Sugar
|
||
yields of 20 MT per ha are suggested, all of which could be converted to renewable alcohol.
|
||
Once flowering, male trees go on producing tappable spadices for 2 to 3 years, until the
|
||
lowest leaf axil is utilized and the tree is exhausted.^® A single tree, upon felling, can yield
|
||
up to 75 kg “ sago starch” (true sago may yield 5 times as much). Trees that have been
|
||
tapped for sugar yield little or no sago). Energy planners cannot then add the sugar and
|
||
starch, but plan for one or the other. The black reticulate leaf-sheaths have hair-like fibers
|
||
that are used for tinder.
|
||
Biotic factors — Flowers are presumably wild-pollinated. Sugar palm is virtually in
|
||
sect-, pest-, and disease-free, one fungus attacking the palm being Ganoderma pseudofer-
|
||
reum. In the East Indies, leaves are damaged by the rhinoceros beetle {Orcytes rhinoceros),
|
||
and dead palms are reported to harbor these beetles, which cause serious damage to coconut
|
||
palms.
|
||
34 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
Breadfruit, Breadnut, Pana
|
||
ARTOCARPUS ALTILIS (Parkins.) Fosb. (MORACEAE)
|
||
Syn.: Artocarpus communis Forst.
|
||
Uses — Cultivated extensively for its fruits and seeds, breadfruit is used as a staple food
|
||
with Polynesians, Micronesians, and Melanesians. When fruit is not fully ripe, being very
|
||
starchy, it is peeled, cut into sections, and baked or boiled, and seasoned with salt, pepper,
|
||
and butter. When fully ripe, the meat is soft and can be baked like sweet potato. Green
|
||
fruits are roasted, ground into a meal, and used to make breads. Breadfruit can also be used
|
||
in salads, made into soup, and, when ripe, made into a pulp (coconut milk and sugar being
|
||
added) and baked as a pudding. Seeds are eaten roasted or boiled. Bark cloth is made from
|
||
the bark. Leaves furnish fodder for livestock. Wood is used locally for house-building.
|
||
Latex from the trunk is used in native medicines, as bird lime and to caulk canoes.
|
||
Folk medicine — Fruits and leaves used as a cataplasm for tumors in Brazil.Powder
|
||
of roasted leaves applied for enlarged spleen; ashes of the leaves applied in herpes^^ (Am-
|
||
boina). Reported to be anodyne, laxative, and vermifuge, breadfruit is a folk remedy for
|
||
backache, blood disorders, boils, bums, diabetes, diarrhea, dysentery, eye ailments, fever,
|
||
fracture, gout, headache, hypertension, oliguria, rheumatism, sores, stomach-ache, swelling,
|
||
testicles, worms, and wounds.West Indians have great faith in the leaf decoction for high
|
||
blood pressure. Colombians cook the fmit with sugar for colic. Virgin Islanders take the
|
||
plant for coronary ailments, Jamaicans dress liver spots with the latex, Costa Ricans apply
|
||
it to w o u n d s .C h in e s e use the seeds to aid parturition and to treat typhoid and other
|
||
fevers. Indonesians use the bark in parturition, poulticing the leaves on splenomegaly. Heated
|
||
flowers, after cooling, are applied to the gums for toothache, fmits are used for cough, root-
|
||
bark for diarrhea and dysentery, seeds as an aphrodisiac. Philippinos use the bark decoction
|
||
for stomach-ache. New Guineans use the latex for dysentery.
|
||
Chemistry — Per 100 g, the mature fmit is reported to contain 103 calories, 70.8 g H2O,
|
||
35
|
||
1.7 g protein, 0.3 g fat, 26.2 g total carbohydrate, 1.2 g fiber, 1.0 g ash, 33 mg Ca, 32
|
||
mg P, 1.2 mg Fe, 15 mg Na, 439 mg K, 24 mg beta-carotene equivalent, 0.22 mg thiamine,
|
||
0.03 mg riboflavin, 0.9 mg niacin, and 29 mg ascorbic acid. Per 100 g, the leaf is reported
|
||
to contain 75 calories, 75.5 g H2O, 5.0 g protein, 2.0 g total carbohydrate, 2.0 g ash, 2.0
|
||
mg Ca, 170 mg P, 60 mg Fe, 17.5 mg Na, 0.10 mg thiamine, and 70 mg ascorbic acid.
|
||
Per 100 g, the mature seed is reported to contain 434 calories, 20.2 g H2O, 15.1 g protein,
|
||
29.0 g fat, 34.0 g total carbohydrate, 2.5 g fiber, 1.7 g ash, 66 mg Ca, 320 mg P, 6.7 mg
|
||
Fe, 41 mg Na, 380 mg K, 280 mg beta-carotene equivalent, 0.88 mg thiamine, 0.55 mg
|
||
riboflavin, 0.8 mg niacin, and 12 mg ascorbic acid. Quijano and Arango^^^ report wetter
|
||
seeds (56.3% moisture) with (ZMB): 3 to 4 g ash, 12.8 g fat, 16 g soluble carbohydrates,
|
||
20 g total protein, and 3.9 g fiber. Of the protein (20%), 6.4 g was nonglobular protein,
|
||
13.5 g globular (1.8 g albumins, 3.7 globulins, 3.3 prolamins, and 4.6 g glutelins). The
|
||
amino acids of the seeds contain 13.04 g/100 g leucine, 12.10 isoleucine, 5.28 g phenyl
|
||
alanine, 15.90 g methionine, 7.24 g tyrosine, 3.62 g proline, 7.68 g alanine, 4.93 g glutamic
|
||
acid, 3.91 g threonine, 10.43 g serine, 4.78 g glycine, 3.33 g arginine, 4.56 g histidine,
|
||
and 3.12 g cystine per 100 g protein. Fruits contain papayotin and artocarpin.^®^ Leaves
|
||
contain quercetin and camphorol.^^"^ Some HCN is reported in the leaves, stem, and root,
|
||
cerotic acid in the latex.
|
||
Description — Handsome tree, 12 to 20 m tall; leaves large, ovate, leathery, rough,
|
||
glossy, most often lobate or incised, 30 to 90 cm long, 30 to 40 cm broad, dark-green;
|
||
flowers minute, male and female flowers in separate catkins on the same tree, in axils of
|
||
newly formed leaves; male inflorescences club-shaped, 15 to 30 cm long, dropping to the
|
||
ground in a few days; female inflorescences in globose heads about 5 cm in diameter,
|
||
developing into seedless fruits; some varieties of breadfruit have seeds in profusion; fruit
|
||
(syncarp) ovoid, spherical, or pear-shaped, 10 to 15 cm long, 10 to 15 cm in diameter,
|
||
weighing 1 to 4 kg, with white sticky latex, rind yellowish-green or brown, divided into a
|
||
series of low projections, bearing short spines in some varieties; pulp white or yellowish;
|
||
in breadnut, rind covered with fleshy spines, with brownish seeds 2.5 cm or more in length
|
||
and about 2.5 cm in diameter. Flowers and fruits at nearly all stages on the tree at the same
|
||
time, almost throughout the year.^^®
|
||
Germplasm — Reported from the Indochina-Indonesia Center of Diversity, breadfruit,
|
||
or CVS thereof, is reported to tolerate drought, high pH, heat, laterite, sodium or salt, slope,
|
||
and virus.Many cvs have developed wherever breadfruit has been long grown. Seeded
|
||
CVS are of little economic value but are eaten by natives; the seeds, when roasted, taste like
|
||
chestnuts. Most cvs are seedless. In Ponape, over 50 cvs are known; in Tahiti, about 30;
|
||
and in the South Pacific area, 165.^^* (2n = 56.)
|
||
Distribution — Probably originated in Indonesia and perhaps in New Guinea, where
|
||
large, spontaneous stands occur. Breadfruit is cultivated throughout the islands of the South
|
||
Seas. It has been introduced into many tropical areas of the world, including India, West
|
||
Indies, Mauritius, and southern Florida.
|
||
Ecology — Ranging fromWarm Temperate Dry (without frost) through Tropical Dry to
|
||
Wet Forest Life Zones, breadfruit is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 7 to 40 dm
|
||
(mean of 19 cases = 23.0), annual temperature of 17 to 29°C (mean of 19 cases = 24.1),
|
||
and pH of 5.0 to 8.0 (mean of 14 cases = 6.2). Breadfruit thrives only in humid tropics,
|
||
where the temperature varies from 16 to 38°C with a humidity of 70 to 80%, and a well-
|
||
distributed annual rainfall of 250 to 275 cm. Climatic requirements vary according to cv.
|
||
In Indonesia, some cvs are adapted to moist climates; others endure 6 months of dry weather.
|
||
It is usually intolerant of climatic extremes in inland regions or high elevations, but grows
|
||
on high islands (up to 700 m in New Guinea) and on atolls throughout the Pacific. It does
|
||
not tolerate shade, and irrigation has been unsuccessful. It thrives on alluvial and coastal
|
||
soils, and can be grown and produced on coral soils of atolls. Some cvs (“ Maitarika” )
|
||
36 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
grown on atolls such as Gilbert Islands are said to tolerate salinity. Wind easily breaks the
|
||
branches and may cause many flowers and young fruits to fall.^^’^^®
|
||
Cultivation — Seeded cvs are propagated from seed; however, seeds lose their viability
|
||
soon after fruit falls. For seedless varieties, if roots are bruised near soil surface, plants send
|
||
up root-suckers, which can be removed and planted in a permanent site. Root-cuttings 20
|
||
to 25 cm long and 12 to 60 mm in diameter may be laid horizontally in a 12-mm-deep
|
||
trench and watered daily. Remove and plant sprouts when 20 to 25 cm tall in rainy season.
|
||
Natural suckers can be air-layered for root initiation planted in a nursery for 2 to 3 months,
|
||
then transplanted to permanent site. At all times, trees should be spaced about 12 m each
|
||
way, or about 100 trees per hectare. Trees should be watered for first and second years,
|
||
given shallow intercultures, and generally no manuring. Some intercropping is practiced.
|
||
Harvesting — Trees start bearing in 5 to 6 years, when vegetatively propagated, 8 to 10
|
||
years from seed. Under good soil and climatic conditions they will continue to produce well
|
||
for 50 years. Time of harvest differs in various localities: in Caroline Islands, May to
|
||
September; Gilbert Islands, May to July; Society Islands, November to April and July to
|
||
August. For culinary purposes, harvest when still hard. Harvesting is done with a long pole,
|
||
having a hooked knife and basket at the end so fruits do not fall to ground. Fruits ripen in
|
||
4 to 6 days.^^^
|
||
Yields and economics — Adult trees yield 50 to 150 fruits, each producing 23 to 45 kg.
|
||
An 8-year-old tree can bear 800 fruits over the three seasons of a year.*^^ A fruit may weigh
|
||
1 to 3 kg. Breadfruits are gathered and sold locally where the trees are grown. They rarely
|
||
enter international trade.
|
||
Energy — If an adult tree bears 100 2-kg fruits, and if the fruits contain 70% water, that
|
||
is still 60 kg dry matter (DM) per tree per year. If one could crowd 100 such productive
|
||
trees into a hectare that indicates 6 MT DM in fruits alone, a reasonable renewable biomass
|
||
production. There is a sizable annual accumulation of leaves and limbs as well.
|
||
Biotic factors — Hand-pollinated fruits are twice the size of normally developing fruits.
|
||
The following fungi are known to attack breadfruit: Capnodium sp., Cercospora artocarpi,
|
||
Colletotrichum artocarpi, Cephaleuros virescens, Corticium salmonicolor, Gloeosporium
|
||
artocarpi, G. mangiferae, Orbilia epipora, Pestalotiopis versicolor, Phytophthora palmi-
|
||
vora, Phyllosticta artocarpi, P. artocarpicola, Mycosphaerella artocarpi, Rhizopus arto
|
||
carpi, Sclerotium rolfsii, Uredo artocarpi, Zygosporium oscheoides. Nematodes infesting
|
||
the tree are Boledorus sp., Helicotylenchus concavus, H. cavenessi, H. dihystera, H. mi-
|
||
croc ephalus, H. pseudorobustus, Heterodera marioni, Meloidogyne incognita acrita, Ro-
|
||
tylenchulus reniformis, Scutellonema calthricaudatum, Tylenchorhynchus triglyphus, and
|
||
Xiphinema ifacola}^^'^^^
|
||
37
|
||
ARTOCARPUS HETEROPHYLLUS Lam. (MORACEAE) — Jackfruit
|
||
Syn.: Artocarpus integra (Thunb.) M err., Artocarpus integrifolia L.f.
|
||
Uses — Few, if any, tropical fruits can excel the jackfruit in size and usefulness. Cultivated
|
||
for its multiple fruit, the pulp may be cooked or fried before ripening, or eaten raw when
|
||
ripe. Fruits I sampled in Brazil were quite adequate, right off the tree. Pulp is sometimes
|
||
boiled with milk, or made into preserves or curries. Leaves and bark contain a white latex.
|
||
Leaves are fed to sheep, goats, and cattle as fodder, especially in the dry season. Flower
|
||
clusters are eaten in Java with syrup and agar-agar or coconut milk. Young fruits may be
|
||
eaten in soups. When properly fermented, pulp produces a vinegar. Seeds are mealy and
|
||
are tasty when boiled or roasted. Half-ripe fruits are fed to pigs and used for fattening cattle
|
||
and sheep. Wood is bright yellow when fresh, darkening on exposure, used for furniture,
|
||
cabinet work, house-building, doors, window frames, and cart work. The wood chips are
|
||
distilled in Burma and Sri Lanka to produce the yellow dye used for Buddhist robes. Trees
|
||
are usually cut for lumber when upwards of 30 years old; wood takes a high polish and is
|
||
ornamental. Heartwood contains a brilliant yellow dye, similar to fustic. Cyanomaclurin is
|
||
also present, producing an olive-yellow with chromium, dull yellow with aluminum, and a
|
||
brighter yellow with tin mordant. Green and red dyes may also be prepared. Sawdust and
|
||
shavings of wood, when boiled in water, yield a yellow dye used for dying silk. Milky juice
|
||
is used in some countries as a bird-lime. Bark yields a
|
||
fiber.Shedding nearly 10 MT
|
||
leaves a year and bearing fruits weighing up to 11 kg each, this species deserves consideration
|
||
as a shade tree for cardamoms.
|
||
Folk medicine — According to Hartwell, the plant is used in folk remedies for tumors.
|
||
Reported to be astringent, demulcent, laxative, refrigerant, and tonic, jackfruit is a folk
|
||
remedy for alcoholism, carbuncles, caries, leprosy, puerperium, smallpox, sores, sterility,
|
||
stomach problems, toothache, and tumors.^' Burmese, Chinese, and Filipinos use the sap
|
||
to treat abscesses and ulcers, and the bark to poultice on such afflictions. Burmese also use
|
||
the roots for diarrhea and fever. Indochinese use the wood as a sedative in convulsion, the
|
||
boiled leaves as a lactagogue, the sap for syphilis and worms. Filipinos use the ashes of the
|
||
leaves to treat ulcers and wounds.Cambodians used the wood to calm the nerves. Munda
|
||
of India use the leaves for vomiting. Both Ayurvedics and Yunani consider the fruit and
|
||
seeds aphrodisiac. Ayurvedics use the ripe fruit for biliousness, leprosy, and ulcers. India
|
||
uses the roots for hydrocoele.*^^
|
||
Chemistry — Per 100 g, the leaves contain (ZMB) 18.5 g protein, 5.0 g fat, 66.3 g total
|
||
carbohydrate, 26.2 g fiber, 10.2 g ash, 2,000 mg Ca, and 110 mg P. Per 100 g, the fruits
|
||
(ZMB) contain 347 calories, 6.3 g protein, 1.1 g fat, 87.5 g total carbohydrate, 3.3 g fiber,
|
||
5.2 g ash, 100 mg Ca, 140 mg P, 2.2 mg Fe, 7.4 mg Na, 1,502 mg K, 867 ug beta-carotene
|
||
equivalent, 0.33 mg thiamine, 0.41 mg riboflavin, 2.58 mg niacin, and 33 mg ascorbic
|
||
acid. Per 1(X) g, the seeds contain 51.6 g H2O, 6.6 g protein, 0.4 g fat, 38.4 g carbohydrate,
|
||
1.5 g fiber, 1.5 g ash, 0.05% Ca, 0.13% P, and 1.2 mg Fe.^ The latex consists of 65.9 to
|
||
76.0% moisture and water solubles and 2.3 to 2.9% caoutchouc. The coagulum contains 6
|
||
to 10% caoutchouc, 82.6 to 86.4% resins, and 3.9 to 8.1% insolubles. Dried latex contains
|
||
the steroketone artostenone C30H50O, which has been converted to artosterone, a compound
|
||
with highly androgenic properties. Seeds, though eaten, contain the hemagglutinin, con-
|
||
cavalin A. Hager’s Handbook gives structures for six flavones isolated therefrom: artacar-
|
||
panone, artocarpetin, artocarpin, cyanomaclurin, cycloartocarpin, and morin (Ci5Hio07).*®^
|
||
The wood contains a yellow pigment, morin, and cyanomaclurin; the bark has tannin, the
|
||
latex cerotic acid.^"^^
|
||
Description — Low or medium-sized evergreen tree, 10 to 25 m high, without buttresses,
|
||
with dense, rather regular crown. Branchlets terete, with scattered, retrose, crisped hairs,
|
||
becoming glabrous. Leaves alternate, shortly stalked, oblong or obovate, with cuneate or
|
||
38 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
obtuse base, and obtuse or shortly acuminate apex, entire (lobed only on very young plants),
|
||
coriaceous, rough, glabrescent, shining dark-green above, pale-green beneath, 10 to 20 cm
|
||
long, 5 to 10 cm wide, with 5 to 8 pairs of lateral veins, petiole 2 to 4 cm long. Stipules
|
||
ovate-triangular, acute, hairy on the back, glabrous on the inner side, pale, 1 to 2 cm long,
|
||
on flowering branches much larger, up to 5 cm. Inflorescences peduncled, solitary in the
|
||
leaf-axils of short, thick branchlets which are placed on the trunk or on the main branches,
|
||
unisexual, 4 to 15 cm long; the male ones near the apex, fascicled in the higher axils,
|
||
oblong-clavate, rounded at both ends; the female ones in the lower axils, solitary or in pairs
|
||
on longer and thicker peduncles. Flowers very numerous, small, the male ones with a two-
|
||
lobed perianth and one stamen; the female ones cohering at the base, tubular, style obliquely
|
||
inserted, stigma clavate. Spurious fruits very large, oblong, glabrous, with short, 3 to 6
|
||
angular, conical acute spines.
|
||
Germplasm — Reported from the Hindustani Center of Diversity, jackfruit, or cvs thereof,
|
||
is reported to tolerate aluminum, latentes, limestone, low pH, and shade.Varieties such
|
||
as “ Soft” or “ Hard” , are selected mainly according to the thickness of the rind.
|
||
Distribution — Native to the Indian Archipelago, jackfruit is now widely cultivated
|
||
throughout the Old and New World tropics, being known in India, Burma, Bangladesh, Sri
|
||
Lanka, Java, and in South America from the Guianas as far south as Rio de Janeiro, in
|
||
Brazil, West Indies, and southern Florida.
|
||
Ecology — Ranging from Subtropical Dry to Moist through Tropical Very Dry to Wet
|
||
Forest Life Zones, jackfruit is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 7 to 42 dm (mean
|
||
of 14 cases = 22.7), annual temperature of 19 to 29°C (mean of 14 cases = 24.8), and
|
||
pH of 4.3 to 8.0 (mean of 11 cases = 6.0).^^ As a tropical tree, jackfruit grows well in
|
||
most soils, but not in moist low places. Cultivated below 1,000 m altitudes, it grows best
|
||
in deep well-drained soil, but will grow slowly and not so tall in shallow limestone soil.
|
||
Sensitive to frost in its early stages, it cannot tolerate drought or “ wet feet” .^^^
|
||
Cultivation — Propagated by seeds (viable only 2 to 4 weeks), budding after the modified
|
||
Forkert method, inarching, air-layering, or grafting. Seeds retain viability for about 30 days
|
||
at room temperature; however, soaking them in water for 24 hr improves their longevity.
|
||
Budding with eyes of nonpetioled budwood on stocks from 8 to 11 months old gives best
|
||
results. The best stock is Artocarpus champeden, but A. rigida Bl. can also be used. Stock
|
||
should be slightly shaded. For grafting-tape, dry bark-fibers of Musa textilis are used.
|
||
Budding may be performed throughout the year, provided stocks are old enough. Can be
|
||
propagated through root shoots. Trees should be spaced 12 to 14 m apart each way. Cattle
|
||
manure is helpful.
|
||
Harvesting — Trees start bearing fruit when 4 to 14 years old; once established, they
|
||
continue to bear for several decades. Ripe fruits, available almost throughout the year, are
|
||
much relished. About 8 months is required from time the flowers begin to expand until fruit
|
||
matures.
|
||
Yields and economics — A tree may bear 150 to 250 fruits per year and fruits may weigh
|
||
10 to 40 kg. Two hundred 20-kg fruits a tree indicate an incredible 4 tons per tree per year.
|
||
If 50 trees could bear at this rate, that would be 200 tons fruit per ha. But 75% of this is
|
||
water. Cultivation in Bangladesh in 1969 to 1970 amounted to 17,760 ha, because of greater
|
||
demand, producing 212,635 tons of fruit. Because of the fruit, it is marketed locally.
|
||
Energy — Grown as a shade tree for cardamom, jackfruit contributed annually 9,375
|
||
kg/ha leaf mulch.
|
||
Biotic factors — The following fungi are known to attack jackfruit: Ascochyta sp.,
|
||
Botryodiplodia theohromae, Capnodium sp., Cephaleuros sp., Circinotrichum sp., Corti-
|
||
cium salmonicolor (pink disease), Diplodia artocarpi, Ganoderma applanatum, Gloeos-
|
||
porium artocarpi, G. caressae, Kernia furcotricha, Marasmius scande ns, Marssonia indica,
|
||
Meliola artocarpi, Pestalotia elasticola, Phomopsis artocarpi, Phyllosticta artocarpi, P.
|
||
39
|
||
artocarpina, Phytophthora palmivora, Rhizoctonia solani, Rhizopus artocarpi, R. stolonifer,
|
||
Rosellinia bunodes, Septoria artocarpi, Setella coracina, Torula herbarum, Uredo artocarpi.
|
||
Trees are also parasitized by Dendrophthoe falcata and Viscum album. Among the nematodes
|
||
known to infest jackfruit trees are Aphelechus avenae, Cr icone ma taylori, Criconemoides
|
||
birchfieldi, Helicotylenchus dihystera, Heterodera marioni, Hoplolaimus seinhorsti, Lep-
|
||
tonema thornei, Meloidogyne sp., Oostenbrinkella oostenbrinki, Peltamigratus sp., Praty-
|
||
lenchus zeae, Rotylenchulus reniformis, Trichodorus sp., Tylenchorhynchus acutus, T. mar
|
||
tini, T. triglyphus, Xiphinema americanum, X. pratense, and X. setariae.^'^^'^^
|
||
40 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
BALANITES AEGYPTIACA (L.) Delile (SIMARUBACEAE) — Desert Date, Soapberry
|
||
Tree, Jericho Balsam
|
||
Uses — Monks of Jericho regarded Balanites as the balm of the Biblical verse. An oily
|
||
gum made from the fruit is sold in tin cases to travelers as the balm of Gilead. Both Balanites
|
||
and Pistacia are common in old Palestine, and both are called balm. A desert-loving plant,
|
||
Balanites is also revered by the Mohammedans in western India.The wood is used for
|
||
axes, cudgels, Mohammedan writing boards, mortars and pestles, walking sticks, and wooden
|
||
bowls. Since it gives little smoke, it is a favorite firewood for burning indoors. Spiny
|
||
branches are used to pen up animals. The bark yields a strong fiber. The fruit is fermented
|
||
to make an intoxicating beverage. In West Africa and Chad, the seed is used for making
|
||
breadstuffs and soups, while the leaf is used as a vegetable, the pericarp is crushed and
|
||
eaten.Flowers are eaten in soups in West Africa. The comestible oil, which constitutes
|
||
40% of the fruit, is used to make soap. African Arabs use the fruit as a detergent, the bark
|
||
to poison fish. The active principle, probably a saponin, is lethal to cercarla, fish, miracidia,
|
||
mollusks,^^ and tadpoles. One fruit weighing 25 g has enough active ingredient to kill the
|
||
bilharzial mollusks in 30 € water.^^^ The Douay Bible of 1609 renders Jeremiah 8:22 to
|
||
read, “ Is there no rosin in Gilead?“ , resulting in this edition being termed the Rosin Bible.
|
||
The Bishop’s Bible of 1568 reads, “ Is there no tryacle in Gilead?“ , and is termed the
|
||
Treacle Bible. The tree is recommended for arid zones by UNESCO because of its food
|
||
41
|
||
value, fixed oil, and protein in the kernel (“nut”) and as a raw material for the steroid
|
||
industry.®^
|
||
Folk medicine — Fruits are pounded and boiled to extract the medicinal vulnerary oil.
|
||
The oil was poured over open wounds and apparently acted as an antiseptic and protective
|
||
covering against secondary infections. One Turkish surgeon regarded Inis as one of the best
|
||
stomachics, a most excellent remedy for curing wounds. In Ethiopia, the bark is used as an
|
||
antiseptic, the leaf to dress wounds, and the fruit as an anthelmintic laxative. In Palestine,
|
||
the oil is said to be used in folk medicine. Ghanans used the leaves as a vermifuge, whereas
|
||
Libyans use them to clean malignant wounds. Powdered root bark is used for herpes zoster
|
||
while the root extracts are suggested for malaria. Ghanans use the bark from the stem in
|
||
fumigation to heal the wounds of circumcision. Nigerians consider it abortifacient. The oil
|
||
from the fruits is applied to aching bones and swollen rheumatic joints by the Lebanese.
|
||
Extracts of the root have proven slightly effective in experimental malaria. The bark has
|
||
been used in treating syphilis. In Chad, the plant is used as a fumigant in liver disease, the
|
||
seed as a febrifuge, and the fruit for colds. Ugandans use the oil for sleeping sickness, but
|
||
the efficacy is questioned. Ayurvedics apply the fruit oil to ulcers, the fruit for other skin
|
||
ailments and rat bites, regarding the fruit as alexipharmic, alterative, analgesic, anthelmintic,
|
||
antidysenteric. Unanis use the fruit also for boils and leucoderma.^^’^^ ’^^
|
||
Chemistry — A chloroform fraction of the stem bark, chromatographed over a column
|
||
of silica gel, yielded beta-sitosterol, bergapten, marmesin, and beta-sitosterol glucoside.
|
||
None of these compounds were active in eight 9KB5 (in vitro) or P0388 (in vivo) systems.^®'
|
||
Per 100 g, the fruit (ZMB) is reported to contain 339 calories, 6.1 to 11.1 g protein, 0.0
|
||
to 1.7 g fat, 79.1 to 88.6 g total carbohydrate, 10.2 g fiber, 5.2 to 8.1 g ash, 130 to 380
|
||
mg Ca. 400 mg P, and 39 mg ascorbic acid. Shoots contain (ZMB): 27.5 g protein, 1.5 g
|
||
fat, 64.4 g total carbohydrate, 23.3 g fiber, 6.6 g ash, 480 mg Ca, and 380 mg P; leaves
|
||
contain 11.6 g protein 4.2 g fat, 71.5 g total carbohydrate, 13.6 g fiber, and 12.7 g ash.
|
||
Seeds or “ nuts” contain (ZMB): 21.9 g protein, 45.7 g fat, and 3.3 g ash (21). The fruit
|
||
flesh contains 1% saponin, 38 to 40% sugar. The saponin from the pericarp contains glucose
|
||
and rhamnose; from the seeds, glucose, rhamnose, xylose, and ribose. The seed kernel
|
||
yields the steroid balanitesin, identical with the sapogenin C27H42O3 called diosgenin. The
|
||
seed oil (30 to 55%), colored yellow with alpha-carotene has 19% palmitic-, 14%
|
||
stearic-, 27% oleic-, 40% linoleic-, and traces of arachidonic-acids. Traces of yamogenin,
|
||
25-alpha-spirosta-3:5-diene and beta-sitosterol.'*^
|
||
Description — Savanna tree, 5 to 7 (to 21) m tall; bark gray to dark-brown, with thick
|
||
ragged scales and long vertical fissures in which new yellow bark is visible; branchlets
|
||
green, smooth, armed with green straight forward-directed supra-axillary spines to 8 cm
|
||
long; leaves gray-green, 2 foliolate; leaflets obovate to orbicular-rhomboid, usually 2.5 to
|
||
5 cm long, 1.3 to 3 cm broad, flowers green to yellow-green, small, ca. 1.3 cm in diameter,
|
||
in supra-axillary clusters or rarely subracemose; fruit a plum-sized drupe, green at first,
|
||
turning yellow, broadly oblong-ellipsoid, with large, hard, pointed stone surrounded by
|
||
yellow-brown sticky edible flesh.
|
||
Germplasm — Reported from the Mediterranean Center of Diversity, desert date, or cvs
|
||
thereof, is reported to tolerate drought, high pH, insects, savanna, and waterlogging.*^
|
||
Distribution — Widespread across North Africa, south to Uganda, Ethiopia, Sudan,
|
||
Chad, Nigeria, Arabia, and Palestine.^^*
|
||
Ecology — Ranging from Subtropical Dry to Wet through Tropical Desert (with water)
|
||
to Dry Forest Life Zones, desert date is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 1.5 to
|
||
17 dm (mean of 9 cases = 10), annual temperature of 18.7 to 27.9°C (mean of 9 cases =
|
||
24.3), and pH of 5.0 to 8.3 (mean of 6 cases = 6.9).*^ Commonly found in dry areas
|
||
occasionally subject to inundation. Sandy well-drained soil with slightly acid pH may be
|
||
most productive.*^
|
||
42 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
Cultivation — Propagates widely by seeds naturally. Seeds germinate readily. Sometimes
|
||
planted in villages for the fruit and other parts.
|
||
Harvesting — Fruits are collected when ripe and spread out, often on roofs, to dry until
|
||
needed. Other parts of plants collected as needed. Available nearly year round.
|
||
Yields and economics — When steroid prices were volatile, this was viewed as an
|
||
alternative source. World consumption was expected to exceed 1000 MT diosgenin or
|
||
yamogenin by 1973 and 60 MT hecogenin. Seeds from Nigeria (42.8 to 48.4% oil) yielded
|
||
1.11 to 1.74% total sapogenins; from Tanzania (43.1% oil) 0.95% sapogenins; and, from
|
||
India (50.3%) 0.74% total sapogenins.
|
||
Energy — Roots have been used for producing charcoal. The wood, burning with little
|
||
smoke, is used for fuel wood. The oil could be used for fuel, better transesterified.
|
||
Biotic factors: — Desert date trees are attacked by the following fungi: Phoma balanites,
|
||
Septoria balanites, Diplodiella balanites, Metasphaeria balanites, and Schizophyllum
|
||
commune.
|
||
43
|
||
BARRINGTONIA PROCERA (Miers) Kunth (MYRTACEAE) — Nua Nut
|
||
Uses — While nuts of many species are said to be used as fish poisons {B. asiatica, B.
|
||
cylindrostachya, B. racemosa), others are used for food (B. butonica, B. careya, B. edulis,
|
||
B. excelsa, B. magnifica, B. niedenzuana, B. novae-hiberniae, B. procera). The nua nut
|
||
is a common component of native meals on Santa Cruz, also eaten in between-meal snacks.
|
||
Smoked whole fruits can be stored.
|
||
Folk medicine — No data available.
|
||
Chemistry — No data available.
|
||
Description — Tree, sparingly branched, to 5 m tall or taller, the broad shiny leaves
|
||
clustered near the ends of the branches. Flowers in long pendulous cylindrical racemes,
|
||
yellow. Fruit an ovoid drupe; seed and kernel also ovoid.
|
||
Germplasm — Reported from the New Guinea Center of Diversity. The fruit epidermis
|
||
may be green or purple, the seed coat white or pink. In the Solomon Islands, it is generally
|
||
believed that the kernels from Santa Cruz are bigger than those elsewhere (see Figures 6
|
||
and 7 in Yen^"^^). Other edible species known as cut-nuts in the Solomons are similar or
|
||
closely related.
|
||
Distribution — Limited to the Huon Peninsula of New Guinea, the New Guinea Islands,
|
||
the Solomons, and New Hebrides, grown as a village tree in Fiji.
|
||
Ecology — Estimated to range from Subtropical Moist to Rain through Tropical Moist
|
||
to Wet Forest Life Zones, nua nut is estimated to tolerate annual precipitation of 20 to 60
|
||
dm, annual temperature of 23 to 27°C, and pH of 6.0 to 8.4.
|
||
Cultivation — Propagated from seed or stem cutting. Seedling trees “ are said to reflect
|
||
the characteristics of the parental tree, as, of course, do cuttings, but the latter tend to grow
|
||
branched closer to the ground’’. ^
|
||
Harvesting — Seasons of production are indefinite and nuts are available all year round.
|
||
The growth rate of fruit after fertilization is fast. There are only 6 weeks between the
|
||
flowering time of the upper part of the inflorescences and the harvest of such fruits.
|
||
Yields and economics — No data available.
|
||
Energy — No data available.
|
||
Biotic factors — No data available.
|
||
44 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
BERTHOLLETIA EXCELSA Humb. and Bonpl. (MYRTACEAE) — Brazil Nut, Para Nut,
|
||
Creme Nut, Castañas, Castanhado Para
|
||
Uses — Nutritious Brazil nuts are eaten raw, salted, or roasted. Seeds are consumed in
|
||
large quantities and are used in international trade. Kernels are the source of Brazil nut oil,
|
||
used for edible purposes and in the manufacture of soap. The wood is light pinkish-brown,
|
||
neither very hard nor heavy, and it is limited to cheap work.*^^^^^
|
||
Folk medicine — There has been a flurry of interest in one certain formula of one Dr.
|
||
Revici, the formula containing selenium and vegetable oils or natural fatty acids. This
|
||
combination has been tried with cancer patients and, according to one Washington physician,
|
||
in AIDS. I am frankly skeptical, but would not hesitate to increase my consumption of
|
||
Brazil nuts were I suffering AIDS or cancer.
|
||
Chemistry — Per 100 g, the mature seed is reported to contain 644 calories, 4.7 g H2O,
|
||
17.4 g protein, 65.0 g fat, 9.6 g total carbohydrate, 3.9 g fiber, 3.3 g ash, 169 mg Ca, 620
|
||
mg P, 3.6 mg Fe, 2 mg Na, 5 mg beta-carotene equivalent, 0.20 mg thiamine, 0.69 mg
|
||
riboflavin, 0.20 mg niacin, and 2 mg ascorbic acid.^^ Hager’s Handbook notes ca. 1.8%
|
||
myristic, 13.5% palmitic, 2.5% stearic, 55.6% oleic, and 21.6% linoleic acid glycerides,
|
||
and 0.24 to 0.26% barium.Hilditch and Williams‘S® tabulate the component fatty acid
|
||
percentage as 13.8 to 16.2% palmitic, 2.7 to 10.4% stearic, 30.5 to 58.3% oleic, and 22.8
|
||
to ^4.9% linoleic acids. An analysis by Furr et al.‘^s reports the edible portion of the nuts
|
||
to contain 5.0 ppm Al, 0.02 As, 2.7 B, 1,764 Ba, 87 Br, 1,592 Ca, 0.03 Cd, 1.2 Ce, 246
|
||
Cl, 1.9 Co, 0.6 Cr, 1.3 Cs, 18 Cu, 0.1 Eu, 1.7 F, 93 Fe, 0.01 Hg, 0.2 I, 5,405 K, 0.1
|
||
La, 0.01 Lu, 3,370 Mg, 8.0 Mn, 7.2 Na, 5.8 Ni, 0.4 Pb, 103 Rb, 0.1 Sb, 0.02 Sc, 11 Se,
|
||
1,770 Si, 0.04 Sm, 3.5 Sn, 77 Sr, 0.1 Ta, 6.1 Ti, 0.01 V, 0.1 W, 0.2 Yb, and 41 ppm
|
||
Zn dry weight. The normal concentration of some of these elements in land plants are 50
|
||
ppm B, 14 Ba, 15 Br, 2,000 Cl, 0.5 Co, 0.2 Cs, 14 Cu, 3.200 Mg, 630 Mn, 3 Ni, 20 Rb,
|
||
3,400 S, 26 Sr, and 0.2 ppm Se dry weight. They were higher in barium, bromine, cerium,
|
||
cobalt, cesium, magnesium, nickle, rubidium, scandium, selenium, silicon, strontium, tin.
|
||
45
|
||
titanium, and ytterbium, and equal to or higher in europium, lanthanum, and tantalum than
|
||
any of the 12 nut species studied by Furr et al.*°^ Of 529 nuts analyzed for Se, 6% contained
|
||
100 ppm Se or more. The mean value for all nuts was 29.6 ppm, and the median value was
|
||
13.4 ppm. Hexane-extracted high-Se Brazil nut meal in a corn-based diet fed to rats produced
|
||
toxicity similar to that obtained from seleniferous com, selenomethionine, or sodium selenite
|
||
as assessed by weight gain, visually scored liver damage and liver, kidney, and spleen
|
||
weights. The Se in Brazil nuts may be as biologically potent as that from other sources.
|
||
Other nuts in this family (Lecythidaceae) contain so much selenium that overingestion can
|
||
lead to hair loss. Apparently selenium, an anticancer element, is essential in traces, toxic
|
||
in excess. However, the homeostatic human may cope with moderate excesses. “ . . . an
|
||
imals regulate their selenium content through excretion. When the element is in short supply,
|
||
excretory metabolite production is minimal. When the needs of the organism are being met,
|
||
excess selenium is eliminated by conversion to the excretory metabolites.” ^"^
|
||
Description — Large forest tree, up to 40 m tall; leaves alternate, short-petioled, leathery,
|
||
oblong, with wavy margin, 30 to 50 cm long, 7.5 to 15 cm broad; flowers in large erect
|
||
spike-like racemes, white to cream, sepals united but finally separating into two deciduous
|
||
sepals; fruit large, brown, woody, globose, 10 to 15 cm in diameter, weighing up to 2 kg,
|
||
with an aperture at one end which is closed by a woody plug and must be broken open to
|
||
extract the “ nuts” inside; fruit may remain on the trees several months after ripening; seeds
|
||
12 to 24 per fruit, triangular, with a brown homy testa.
|
||
Germplasm — Reported from the South American Center of Diversity, Brazil nut, or
|
||
CVS thereof, is reported to tolerate lateritic soils.
|
||
Distribution — Native to the Amazon basin of Northern Brazil, Bolivia, Colombia, Pern,
|
||
Venezuela, and Guianas, mainly along banks of the Amazon and upper Orinoco Rivers and
|
||
their tributaries. Introduced into Sri Lanka in 1880 and Singapore in 1881.^^^
|
||
Ecology — Ranging from Subtropical Moist to Tropical Dry through Wet Forest Life
|
||
Zones, Brazil nut is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 13.5 to 41.0 (mean of 7
|
||
cases = 29.3), annual temperature of 21.3 to 27.4°C (mean of 7 cases = 25.4), and pH
|
||
of 4.3 to 8.0 (mean of 6 cases = 5.8).®^ A tropical tree, sometimes gregarious, preferring
|
||
high land, beyond reach of periodical floods. Thrives best in rich alluvial soil, in a hot moist
|
||
climate.
|
||
Cultivation — Brazil nuts are collected from wild trees and are nowhere cultivated for
|
||
commercial production. Trees are propagated from seed or by layering. From 10 to 25 years
|
||
are required for fmiting to begin. Attempts to establish Brazil nut plantations have met with
|
||
mediocrity, at best.^^^
|
||
Harvesting — After fmits have fallen and are gathered, usually during the dry season,
|
||
the nuts are extracted and shipped to Manaos or Belem do Para, where they are graded and
|
||
exported to the U.S. and Europe.
|
||
Yields and economics — A good tree will yield 300 fruits at a time, ca. 15 months after
|
||
flowering. An adult tree may yield, in normal years, from 30 to 50 kg of fruits, but yields
|
||
of more than 2000 kg per tree are reported. Early in the 20th century, with the fall of
|
||
Brazilian rubber prices in 1910 due to Asian competition, Brazil nuts became a vital export.
|
||
The first U.S. customs entry recorded was 1873, when more than 1,800 MT unshelled nuts
|
||
entered at an average price less than $0.15/kg. By 1982, spot prices for unshelled nuts were
|
||
over $3.00/kg. By 1978, 15,472 MT of in-shell nuts were exported, contrasted to 5,367
|
||
shelled nuts. The U.S. is the largest importer, followed by the U.K., West Germany, Italy,
|
||
France, Australia, and the Netherlands. Brazilian output is predicted to remain steady at
|
||
around 40 to 60 thousand MT in shell-nuts for both internal and external consumption. The
|
||
principal producer of Brazil nuts is Brazil. In 1971, the Brazil nut crop in Brazil was 22,500
|
||
MT, and in 1970, 40,000 MT. Domestic consumption in Brazil is 1,000 to 2,000 MT per
|
||
year. Shelled assorted nuts commanded $0.55/lb; unshelled, dehydrated nuts $0.23/lb; and
|
||
natural unshelled nuts $0.18/lb.^^^’^^^
|
||
46 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
Energy — Shells and spoiled kernels supplement firewood in the power plants providing
|
||
heat for the diy'ers. Imperfect nuts are used for oil extraction, the press-cake employed as
|
||
feed for animals, whose manure could be used to extend fuel.
|
||
Biotic factors — The following fungi are known to attack this tree: Actinomyces brasi-
|
||
liensis, Aspergillus flavus, Cephalosporium bertholletianum, Cercospora bertholletiae (Gray
|
||
spot), Cunninghamella bertholletiae, Fusarium sp., Myxosporium sp., Pellionella macros-
|
||
pora, Phytophthora heveaef Piptocephalus sphaerocephala, Phomopsis bertholletianum,
|
||
and Thamnidium elegans. Albuquerque et al.^ recommend Cuprosan copper oxychloride
|
||
or difolatan-80-captafol for control of Phytopthora leaf blight. The nematode, Meloidogyne
|
||
incognita, has been found causing heavy galling on the roots.
|
||
47
|
||
BORASSUS FLABELLIFER L. (ARECACEAE) — Palmyra Palm, Brab Tree, Woman’s
|
||
Coconut
|
||
Syn.: Borassus flabelliformis Roxb. {l)Borassus aethiopum Mart.
|
||
Uses — Palmyra palm is grown for the juice or toddy, extracted from the inflorescence
|
||
from which sugar or jaggery is made. Tender fruits resembling pieces of translucent ice are
|
||
eaten during hot season. Seeds are eaten as well as fruits. Fleshy scales of young seedling
|
||
shoots are eaten as a delicacy, especially in northern Sri Lanka, or dried to make a starchy
|
||
powder (reported to contain a neurotoxin). Salt prepared from leaves. The inflorescence is
|
||
a source of sugar, wine, and vinegar. Five types of fiber are obtained from different parts
|
||
of the plant, used for hats, thatching houses, books, writing paper, mats, bags, and all types
|
||
of utensils for carrying or storing water and food. Timber is black, sometimes with yellow
|
||
grain, strong, splits easily; said to withstand a greater cross-strain than any other known
|
||
timber; used for boat making, rafters, water pipes, walking sticks, umbrella handles and
|
||
rulers. Tree also yields a black gum. A Tamil poem enumerates 801 ways to use this palm.
|
||
Sometimes planted as a windbreak.
|
||
Folk medicine — An emollient made from the root is said to be a folk remedy for
|
||
indurations. Flower or root is a folk remedy for tumors of the uterus (Cambodia). Sprouting
|
||
seed used as a diuretic and galactagogue. Petiole used as a vermifuge in Cambodia. Root
|
||
regarded as cooling. Ash of spathe given for enlarged spleens. Juice drunk before breakfast
|
||
has important medicinal properties, and is stimulant and antiphlegmatic. Juice is diuretic,
|
||
stimulant, antiphlegmatic, useful in inflammatory affections and dropsy; pulp is demulcent
|
||
and nutritive.^*
|
||
Chemistry — Per 100 g, the mature fruit is reported to contain 43 calories, 87.6 g H2O,
|
||
0.8 g protein, 0.1 g fat, 10.9 g total carbohydrate, 2.0 g fiber, 0.6 g ash, 27 mg Ca, 30
|
||
mg P, 1.0 mg Fe, 0.04 mg thiamine, 0.02 mg riboflavin, 0.3 mg niacin, and 5 mg ascorbic
|
||
acid. Sap contains about 12% sugar. Spontaneous fermentation produces ca. 3% alcohol
|
||
and 0.1% acids during the first 6 to 8 hr. Beyond this, fermentation goes to 5%, but there
|
||
is too much butyric acid. A cheap source of vinegar. Accordingto the Wealth of India, the
|
||
nira (fresh sap) contains 85.9% moisture, 0.2% protein, 0.02% fat, 0.29 ash, 13.5% car
|
||
bohydrates, 12.6% total sugar, and 5.7 mg Vitamin C per 1(X) g; the gur (boiled-down
|
||
molasses) contains 8.6% moisture, 1.7% protein, 0.08% fat, 1.8% ash, 88.5% carbohydrate.
|
||
48 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
(84% total sugar); the seed pulp contains 92.6% moisture, 0.6% protein, 0.1% fat, 0.3%
|
||
ash, 6.3% carbohydrates, and 13.1 mg/100 g vitamin The mannocellulose of the
|
||
endosperm is transformed to glucose via mannose.
|
||
Toxicity — Fleshy scale leaves of the germinating seeds, eaten by humans, contain a
|
||
neurotoxin.
|
||
Description — Tall palm, 20 to 30 m high; trunk cylindrical, 30 to 35 cm in diameter,
|
||
very hard, black, mainly composed of stiff longitudinal fibers, central portion soft and
|
||
starchy, with crown of 30 to 40 fan-like leaves. Leaves glaucous, palmate, up to 3.3 m
|
||
wide, stiff, with numerous free pointed tips, petiole 11.3 m long, channeled above, with
|
||
hard saw-like teeth on margins. Inflorescence stalks among the leaves, long, much-branched;
|
||
male and female flowers on separate trees; male flowers borne on thick digitate processes,
|
||
female flowers appearing like small fruits. Fruit a large drupe, 15 to 20^ cm in diameter,
|
||
depressed-globular, brown; exterior smooth, enclosed in a tough matted fiber; interior very
|
||
fibrous, with 2 to 3 seeds; seeds rounded, but flattish, 3.7 to 5 cm across. Spathes begin
|
||
to appear in November or December, but flowers in March; fruits July-August.
|
||
Germplasm — Reported from the African and, secondarily, the Hindustani Centers of
|
||
Diversity, palmyra palm, or cvs thereof, is reported to tolerate disease, drought, fire, high
|
||
pH, salt, sand, slope, savannah, waterlogging, and wind. The genus Borassus is believed
|
||
to contain one or as many as eight species, depending on your taxonomic point of view.
|
||
Kovoor maintains that the African B. aethiopum is distinct from B. flabellifer. No dwarf
|
||
mutants have been reported. (2n = 36.)^^’^^^
|
||
Distribution — Said to be native to Africa, but also claimed to be indigenous to tropical
|
||
India and Malaysia, where it is both wild and cultivated, especially in coastal areas. Widely
|
||
cultivated throughout tropical Asia and Africa (Congo, Gabon, Gambia, Guinea, Guinea-
|
||
Bissau, Ivory Coast, Malagasy, Mali, Mauritania, Nigeria, Senegal, Sudan, Tanzania, Upper
|
||
Volta), with huge stands covering thousands of hectares. Grown in comparatively dry parts
|
||
of Burma, India, Sri Lanka, and Malaya.Kovoor^^^ estimates that there are 10,615,000
|
||
palmyra in Sri Lanka, 60 million in India, 2,350,000 in Burma, 1,800,000 in Kampuchea,
|
||
5 million in east Java.
|
||
Ecology — Ranging from Subtropical Dry to Moist through Tropical Very Dry to Wet
|
||
Forest Life Zones, palmyra palm is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 6.4 to 42.9
|
||
dm (mean of 11 cases = 18.8), annual temperature of 20.6 to 27.5°C (mean of 11 cases
|
||
= 24.3°C), and pH of 4.5 to 8.0 (mean of 7 cases = 6.4).^^ Palmyra palm is grown in
|
||
regions with a pronounced dry monsoon, being especially abundant in all sandy tracts near
|
||
the sea, on embankments, and in mixed coconut and date palm jungles of Bengal.Though
|
||
drought-tolerant, it suffers little from prolonged flooding. Kovoor^^^ suggests that “ its natural
|
||
preference is for rich alluvial soil” .
|
||
Cultivation — Plants develop from self-sown seed. Seeds germinate, producing a “ sinker” ,
|
||
which grows downward 1 m before producing growth at top. “ Once sprouted, the seedling
|
||
cannot be transported. Trees are slow-growing, taking 15 to 20 years before showing a
|
||
stem above ground; in the early stages only the underground portion of the stem increases
|
||
in thickness. Male and female trees cannot be distinguished until they flower. For food, the
|
||
seed-bed is prepared and nuts planted as close together as possible about June or July, about
|
||
50 seeds to the square meter. In about 3 to 4 months the nuts are dug up, by which time
|
||
they have germinated, and the sprouts are eaten as a vegetable. Actually, the nut is broken
|
||
open and the embryo eaten dry or made into a flour, tasting similar to tapioca.
|
||
Harvesting — Trees begin to flower when 12 to 15 years old, depending on the region,
|
||
and continue to flower for about 50 years. Female trees yield about twice as much sap as
|
||
male trees. Fresh sap, called “ sweet toddy” or “ nira” , containing about 12% sucrose, is
|
||
obtained by tapping the flower stalk. Juice may be used fresh as a beverage, or, if not treated
|
||
promptly, begins to ferment into an intoxicating liquor. Fresh juice boiled down into a sugar
|
||
called jaggery or gur, with about 80% sucrose and 2.5% glucose, is an important sugar in
|
||
49
|
||
southern India and Burma. Tapping does not injure the tree. However, every 3 years the
|
||
sap-drawing process is omitted; otherwise the tree would die. A toddy collector climbs the
|
||
tree, tightly binds the spathes with thongs to prevent further opening, and then thoroughly
|
||
bruises the embryo flower within to facilitate the exit of juice. This operation is repeated
|
||
for several days, and on each occasion a thin slice is removed from spathe to facilitate
|
||
running of sap and to prevent it bursting the bound spathe. In about 8 days, sap begins to
|
||
exude into an earthen pot placed for that purpose. Pots are emptied twice daily, the pots
|
||
coated with lime inside to prevent fermentation. In factories, raw gur is heaped on platforms
|
||
for about 2 months to drain away most of the molasses. Then it is dissolved in water and
|
||
refined in the usual manner to make crystalline sugar. Molasses obtained during crystalli
|
||
zation is used for producing arrack. Five types of fibers may be obtained from the Palmyra
|
||
palm, each with specific characteristics and uses:
|
||
1. Fibers about 60 cm long, separated from leafstalks, called “ Bassine” , are used for
|
||
making rope, twine, and sometimes paper.
|
||
2. A loose fiber surrounds the base of the leafstalk.
|
||
3. “ Tar” , prepared from the interior of stem without any spinning or twisting, is plaited
|
||
into fishtraps.
|
||
4. A coir is derived from the pericarp.
|
||
5. Fibrous materials of the leaves, are tom into strips, prepared, dyed, plaited into braids,
|
||
and worked up into basketware, fancy boxes, cigar cases and hats. In Bengal, long
|
||
strips of leaf are employed by children as washable slates.
|
||
Kovoor^^^ gives good details of various methods for tapping this and other palms.
|
||
Yields and economics — Trees yield 4 to 5 quarts of sap daily for 4 to 5 months; one
|
||
gallon of sap yields about 680 g jaggery sugar, which is about 80% saccharose or sucrose.
|
||
Joshi and Gopinathan‘^^ suggest that Asian Indians can more cheaply get nearly twice as
|
||
much sugar per hectare from palm as sugar cane, i.e., ca. 6,000 kg/ha vs. 3,500 kg/ha.
|
||
Comparing B orassus with other Indian sugar palms, they note that B orassus is longest lived
|
||
(90 to 120 years), and can be tapped more than twice as many years (70 to 95 years) as
|
||
others, yielding 20 to 70 kg tree, with 1,250 trees per hectare. At one time, one-fourth of
|
||
the inhabitants of northern Sri Lanka were dependent on this tree for subsistence; in India
|
||
many also depend on it. Most of the trade in Palmyra goes through the Port of Madras.
|
||
Energy — Ironically, the palmyra is better as a fire-breaker in arid regions of West
|
||
Africa prone to wild fires. Its timber bums very poorly as firewood, and young palms are
|
||
said to be more fire resistant than old ones. The relatively high yields of sugar could be
|
||
converted renewably to alcohol for energy purposes. Kovoor^^^ notes that low bearers may
|
||
produce only about 1 €, average ones 6 to 10 €, and exceptional trees 20 Í sap per day.
|
||
Natural fermentation can take these liters to 5 to 6% ethanol.
|
||
Biotic factors — The most serious fungus attacking palmyra palm is Pythium palm ivorum
|
||
(Bud-rot, which grows into the growing point and ultimately kills the tree). Other fungal
|
||
diseases include: C ladosporiu m bora ssii, C urvularia lunata, G raphiola boras si, M icroxy-
|
||
phium sp., P en icillopsis clavariaeform is, P estalotia palm arum , P hytophthora palm ivo ra ,
|
||
S phaerodothis b o ra ssi, R osellinia cocoes. Palmyra is attacked by insects which affect coconut
|
||
palm: Rhinoceros beetle (O ryctes rh in oceros)’, Black headed caterpillar {N ephantis serin o p a ),’
|
||
and Red palm weevil (R hynchophorus ferrugineus).^^^’^^^ Termites and grubs of the Rhi
|
||
noceros beetle can be very destmctive to germinating seeds. In Guinea-Bissau, several insects
|
||
“ commence their destructive careers by turning saprophytic on dead palms” . The most
|
||
predominant of them is O ryctes g ig a s, whereas others like O. ow arien sis, O. m on oceros,
|
||
R h yn ch ophoru sph oen icis, P latygen ia barbata, and P achnoda m arginella are common. Still,
|
||
Kovoor^^^ concludes that the palm is extraordinarily disease-resistant. One study showed
|
||
that more than 2% of the trees were infested with scorpions or snakes.
|
||
50 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
BROSIMUM ALICASTRUM Swartz (MORACEAE) — Breadnut, Ramon, Capomo, Masico
|
||
Uses — Branches and leaves used as an important cattle fodder, especially during the
|
||
drier months in regions where trees are plentiful. Lopped branches (ramón) are relished by
|
||
cattle; fallen leaves and nuts are also relished by cattle and pigs. Feeding ramón forage is
|
||
said to augment milk production 1 to 2 € a day in dairy cattle. The milky latex, which flows
|
||
freely when the trunk is cut, is mixed with chicle or drunk like cow’s milk. Sweet pericarp
|
||
of fruit eaten raw by humans. Fruits boiled and eaten in Costa Rica. The seeds, or breadnuts,
|
||
with chestnut-like flavor, are eaten raw, boiled, roasted, or reduced to a meal often mixed
|
||
with com meal for making tortillas, or baked with green plaintain. They are eaten alone or
|
||
with plantain, maize, or honey, or boiled in symp to make a sweetmeat. Seeds used as a
|
||
coffee substitute. Wood is hard, compact, white, grayish, or tinged with pink, easy to work
|
||
and used in carpentry, a valuable timber sometimes used in constmction, cabinet work, and
|
||
other purposes in Yucatan.
|
||
Folk medicine — According to Hartwell,the plant is used in folk remedies for cancer
|
||
of the utems. Reported to be lactagague and sedative, ramón is a folk remedy for asthma
|
||
(latex, leaves), bronchitis, and chest ailments.^’ Guatemalans drink the latex as a pectoral
|
||
for stomach disorders. Crushed seeds are taken in sweetened water as a lactagogue. The
|
||
bark shows CNS-depressant activity Leaf infusions are used in cough and kidney ailments.
|
||
The diluted latex is used to aid tooth extraction.
|
||
Chemistry — Per 1(X) g, the leaf is reported to contain 127 calories, 62.0 g H2O, 3.2 g
|
||
protein, 1.2 g fat, 30.6 g total carbohydrate, 8.9 g fiber, 3.0 g ash, 530 mg Ca, 68 mg P,
|
||
5.4 mg Fe, 820 mg beta-carotene equivalent, 0.24 mg thiamine, 0.51 mg riboflavin, 1.4
|
||
mg niacin, and 55 mg ascorbic acid. Per 100 g, the fruit is reported to contain 56 calories,
|
||
84.0 g H2O, 2.5 g protein, 0.5 g fat, 12.1 g total carbohydrate, 1.2 g fiber, 0.9 g ash, 45
|
||
51
|
||
mg Ca, 36 mg P, 0.8 mg Fe, 840 mg beta-carotene equivalent, 0.5 mg thiamine, 1.52 mg
|
||
riboflavin, 0.8 mg niacin, and 28 mg ascorbic acid. Per 100 g, the seed is reported to contain
|
||
363 calories, 6.5 g H2O, 11.4 g protein, 1.6 g fat, 76.1 g total carbohydrate, 6.2 g fiber,
|
||
4.4 g ash, 211 mg Ca, 142 mg P, 4.6 mg Fe, 128 mg beta-carotene equivalent, 0.03 mg
|
||
thiamine, 0.14 mg riboflavin, and 2.1 mg niacin. Another seed analysis shows, per 100 g
|
||
(oven-dry basis), 361 calories, 40 to 50 g H2O, 12.8 g protein, 4.6 g fiber, 178 mg Ca,
|
||
122 mg P, 3.8 mg Fe, KX) (xg beta-carotene equivalent, 0.1 mg thiamine, 0.1 mg riboflavin,
|
||
1.6 mg niacin, and 50 mg ascorbic acid. Seed contains an essential oil, resin, wax, mucilage,
|
||
dextrin, and glucose. The crude protein content of the seeds in higher than com, the tryp
|
||
tophan content is four times higher, significant among corn-fed L atins.P eters and Pardo-
|
||
Tejeda^^® report the seeds to contain 10.4% leucine, 9.7% valine, 3.3% isoleucine, 4.0%
|
||
phenylalanine, 2.3% lysine, 2.4% threonine, 2.3% tryptophan, 1.0% hisitidine, 0.7% me
|
||
thionine, 5.1% arginine, 15.3% aspartic acid, 6.7% proline, 9.9% cystine, 2.9% serine,
|
||
2.3% glycine, 3.7% tyrosine, and 2.5% alanine.
|
||
Description — Evergreen, dioecious, tropical tree, 20 to 35(to 40) m tall, trunk to 1 m
|
||
in diameter, sometimes with buttresses; latex white to yellow; leafy twigs 1 to 4 mm thick,
|
||
glabrous or sparsely pubemlent; leaves alternate, elliptic to oblong or lanceolate, slightly
|
||
inequilateral, often broadest above to below the middle, 4 to 28 cm long, 2 to 11 cm broad,
|
||
chartaceous to coriaceous, acuminate, nearly acute, also acute at the base, or obtuse, tmncate
|
||
or subcordate; margin entire, rarely denticulate; glabrous to sparsely pubemlent beneath,
|
||
and pubescent on the costa, 12 to 21 pairs of secondary veins, with or without some parallel
|
||
tertiary veins; petioles 2 to 14 mm long; stipules nearly fully amplexicaul, 5 to 15 mm long,
|
||
glabrous to pubescent; inflorescences solitary, in twos or several together, subglobose to
|
||
ellipsoid, subsessile or pedunculate, the peduncle up to 1.5 cm long; bracts 0.2 to 2 mm in
|
||
diameter, pubemlent, the basal ones sometimes basally attached; staminate influorescence
|
||
3 to 8 mm in diameter, with one central abortive pistillate flower; staminate flowers nu
|
||
merous, perianth absent or minute one, 1 stamen; pistillate inflorescence 2 to 4 mm in
|
||
diameter, with 1 or 2, occasionally many, abortive flowers, style 1.5 to 8.5 mm long,
|
||
stigmas 0.2 to 8 mm long; infmctescences subglobose, 1.5 to 2 cm in diameter, at maturity
|
||
yellow, brownish, or orange; seeds small, roundish, yellow or brownish, 1.3 cm or less in
|
||
diameter, borne singly or in twos, in a thin, paper-like, stout shell, surface of seed smooth
|
||
or somewhat granular. Flowers throughout the year.^^®
|
||
Germplasm — Reported from the Middle and South American Centers of Diversity,
|
||
ramón, or cvs thereof, is reported to tolerate drought, fungi, insects, limestone, slope, and
|
||
waterlogging.®^ Besides the typical form with the anthers peltate with fused thecae, found
|
||
in West Indies and Central America, there is a subsp. bolivarense (Pittier) Berg, called
|
||
Guaimoro (Colombia and Venezuela), and Tillo (Ecuador), in which thecae are free, growing
|
||
from Panama through the Andes to Guyana and in Brazil to Acre Territory.
|
||
Distribution — Native from the Pacific Coast of Mexico (Sinaloa) south through Central
|
||
America to Ecuador, Guyana, and parts of Brazil; also in the West Indies. Introduced and
|
||
planted in Singapore, Trinidad, and Florida.
|
||
Ecology — Ranging from Subtropical Dry to Moist through Tropical Dry to Wet Forest
|
||
Life Zones, ramón is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 3 to 40 dm, annual tem
|
||
perature of 19 to 26°C, and pH of 5.0 to 8.0. Nearly pure stands may occur on steep
|
||
calcareous slopes.®^ In evergreen, semi-evergreen or deciduous forests in tropical climates,
|
||
from 50 to 8(X) m (to 1,0(X) m) altitudes, sometimes in cloud-forests, regionally abundant,
|
||
but also planted. Trees are extremely tolerant of drought, and grow well in dry habitats as
|
||
well as in seasonally flooded places as along rivers and in swampy areas. Common on
|
||
limestone in Jamaica. Thrives on various types of soils in tropical regions.^^®
|
||
Cultivation — Propagated by seeds, cuttings, and air-layering. Seeds germinate readily.
|
||
After trees are established, they grow well without much care. Often form a large portion
|
||
of the forest tree population in some regions.^^®
|
||
52 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
Harvesting — Branches are cut by men who climb the trees with machetes, and cut down
|
||
limbs for stock to browse upon. To increase the yield of fodder, it is suggested that close
|
||
planting and regular coppicing may be tested. Nuts collected from the ground by natives
|
||
are used for food, or for making a black meal for making tortillas and other food-stuffs.
|
||
Timber is harvested from mature trees and used, especially in the Yucatan.
|
||
Yields and economics — Fodder yield of natural and coppiced trees is not known but
|
||
should be ascertained. There seems to be plenty of fodder material about when it is needed
|
||
during dry spells.Peters and Pardo-Tejeda^^® put yields at 50 to 75 kg fruit per female
|
||
tree per year. Based on a rough estimate of the distribution in Vera Cruz, Mexico, it is
|
||
estimated that 80,000 MT seed could be collected annually with an annual production of
|
||
10,000 MT crude protein, leaving the trees standing strong against erosion. Yucatan plantings
|
||
are producing 10 to 15 MT forage per ha at each lopping. Thus ramón plantations produce
|
||
almost twice as much (lactogenic) forage as established pasture.O f great value since
|
||
ancient times in Central America, the West Indies, and northern tropical South America for
|
||
a fodder food for stock and as a source of seeds for meal, latex for food, and timber for
|
||
construction and other purposes. Not a commercial trade crop, but very important locally
|
||
for these many purposes.
|
||
Energy — Assuming that the 80,000 MT seed was gathered for the production of 10,000
|
||
MT crude protein, there would, of course, be a 70,000 MT biomass available for energy
|
||
production. I would estimate that litter-fall from this species might approach 5 to 10 MT/ha.
|
||
Although not a leader among firewoods, the wood could also be renewably gathered for
|
||
fuel wood. As Gomez-Pampa^'^ notes, “ With a year-round, food-producing plant, we can
|
||
liberate a good part of the energy that is currently spent on the production of grain for basic
|
||
food products in tropical regions,” where “ weakness of tropical soils for annual crops has
|
||
always been a limiting factor.”
|
||
Biotic Factors — Seeds stored when fresh are promptly infested by Aspergillus, some
|
||
of which contain toxic compounds.
|
||
53
|
||
BROSIMUM UTILE (H.B.K.) Pitt. (MORACEAE) — Cow Tree, Palo de Vaca
|
||
Syn.: B rosiu m g alactoden dron D. Don in Sweet, G alactoden dron utile H.B.K.
|
||
Uses — Latex from trunk, considered to be highly nutritive, is used by natives as a milk
|
||
like beverage, as a cream substitute in coffee, made into a kind of vegetable cheese, and
|
||
made into a dessert after being chilled, whipped, and flavored. Laborers soak their bread
|
||
in it. Used as a base for chewing gum. Bark used by Indians for making cloth, blankets,
|
||
and sails. Plants grown in tropical areas for fruit or nuts and for leaves used for fodder.
|
||
Fleshy outer layer of fruit eaten by parrots. Humans also eat the fruits, raw or cooked.^®
|
||
The soft, white wood, though not durable, has been used for concrete forms, boxes, and
|
||
sheathing.
|
||
Folk medicine — According to Hartw ell,a plaster of the milk is said to be a folk
|
||
remedy for swelling of the spleen and indolent tumors. Reported to be lactagague and
|
||
masticatory, cow tree is a folk remedy for asthma, inflammation, and tumors.^’ The latex
|
||
is taken for asthma in Venezuela, and as an astringent for diarrhea in Costa Rica.^^'^
|
||
Chemistry — The latex contains 3.8% wax, 0.4% fibrin, 4.7% sugar and gum, and
|
||
31.4% resins.Garcia-Barriga*®^ states that the latex contains 57.3% water, 0.4% albumen,
|
||
31.4% wax of the formula C35H66O3, 5.8% wax of the formula C35H58O7, and 4.7% gum
|
||
and sugars.
|
||
Description — Laticiferous tree, 20 to 25 m tall, with simple trunk 40 to 50 cm in
|
||
diameter at base, bark thick, grayish, smooth or verrucose, crown elongate; young brancelets
|
||
subangular, more or less pubescent; leaves coriaceous; petioles 0.5 to 1.5 cm long, thick,
|
||
canaliculate, sparsely pubescent; blades ovate, elliptic, rounded at base, abruptly acuminate
|
||
at apex in a drip tip, 10 to 25 cm long, 3.5 to 9.5 cm broad, glabrous on both surfaces,
|
||
green above, golden-brown beneath, margin entire, venation impressed on upper surface,
|
||
prominent and slightly pubescent on lower one; primary veins 27 to 30, parallel, straight,
|
||
almost transverse; stipules about 2 cm long, acute-lanceolate, silky pubescent, canducous,
|
||
leaving a circular scar at each node; receptacles globose with 1 female flower, solitary in
|
||
axils of leaves, long-pedunculate, about 7 mm in diameter in flowering stage; bractlet
|
||
orbicular, thick, sessile, pilose-pubescent; staminal bractlets short (0.5 mm long), broad and
|
||
ciliate; stamens 0.7 to 1.4 mm long, solitary, with smooth filaments, anthers ovate and 2-
|
||
celled; ovary inserted 2.5 to 3 mm deep in receptacle; fruit depressed-globose, 2 to 2.5 cm
|
||
in diameter, epicarp fleshy, 4 to 6 mm thick, yellow at maturity, mesocarp woody, rugose
|
||
on surface, entirely filled with a single almond-like, white seed. Flowers and fruits
|
||
September.
|
||
Germplasm — Reported from the Middle and South American Centers of Diversity, cow
|
||
tree, or cvs thereof, is reported to tolerate slope.
|
||
Distribution — Native to tropical America from Nicaragua and Costa Rica south into
|
||
northern South America, Colombia, and Venezuela, sometimes being the common tree in
|
||
upland forests.
|
||
Ecology — Ranging from Tropical Dry to Moist Forest Life Zones, cow tree is reported
|
||
to tolerate annual precipitation of 3 to 40 dm, annual temperature of 25 to 27°C, and pH
|
||
of 8.0.^^ Thrives in wet and subtropical climates, especially on hillsides bordering rivers.^^®
|
||
Cultivation — Propagation by cuttings over heat. When cuttings are rooted, they are
|
||
planted in the forest where they soon became established. Plants rarely cultivated as a pure
|
||
crop, because the trees freely propagate naturally in the forest.
|
||
Harvesting — Incisions are made in trunk of tree, after which there is a profuse flow of
|
||
gluey, thick milk, destitute of acridity and giving off a very agreeable balsamic odor. When
|
||
exposed to air, the fluid displays on its surface, probably by absorption of atmospheric
|
||
oxygen, membranes of a highly animal nature, yellowish and thready, like those of cheese.
|
||
These, when separated from the more watery liquid, are nearly as elastic as those of caoutch
|
||
54 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
ouc, but in time they exhibit the same tendency to purify as gelatin. The milk itself, kept
|
||
in a corked bottle, only deposits a small amount of coagulum and continues to give off the
|
||
balsamic scent. Large quantities of this vegetable milk are drunk by the natives and it has
|
||
been noted that workers gain weight during that time of year when the tree produces the
|
||
most milk.‘^ ’^^^
|
||
Yields and economics — No yield data available. Widely used in the areas where the
|
||
tree grows native, namely southern Central America and northern South America. Not known
|
||
to be of international commercial value.
|
||
Energy — The wood can serve as a fuel wood, said to bum green. Resin extracted from
|
||
the fmits is used to make candles. The latex is mixed with balsa charcoal and wrapped in
|
||
palm leaves to serve as a torch.
|
||
Biotic factors — I find no reports of pests or diseases on this tree.
|
||
55
|
||
BRUGUIERA GYMNORRHIZA (L.) Savigny (RHIZOPHORACEAE) — Burma Mangrove
|
||
Syn.: B ru g u iera con ju gata Auct.
|
||
Uses — The heavy wood (sp. grav. 0.87 to 1.08) is durable, but hard to saw and work.
|
||
It is used for construction, furniture, house-posts, and pilings.Thousands of tons of
|
||
Bruguiera wood chips are exported annually from Indonesia, Sabah, and Sarawak for pulp
|
||
and for rayon manufacture.Fruits are eaten, but not when anything better is available.
|
||
More often, they are chewed as astringent with the betel quid. Since it is mostly the seed
|
||
or embryo of this one-seeded indéhiscent fruit that is eaten, this can be called a tropical
|
||
nut. Embryos of several species are eaten, usually after processing.Chinese in Java make
|
||
a sweetmeat therefrom. In the South Pacific, fruits are peeled, sliced, and soaked in water
|
||
for several hours, then steamed or boiled and eaten with coconut cream.Dutch Indians
|
||
use the bark to flavor raw fish. The leaves and peeled hypocotyls are eaten in the Moluccas
|
||
after soaking and boiling.In the Loyalty Islands, the embryo is kept for months after
|
||
sundrying.The phlobaphene coloring matter is used in China and Malaya for black dye.^^
|
||
In South Africa, the tree has been planted to stabilize dunes and in fresh-water swamps.
|
||
Folk medicine — Reported to be astringent,^* the bark is used for diarrhea and fever in
|
||
Indonesia.Cambodians use the astringent bark for malaria.
|
||
Chemistry — In Burma, leaves may contain 18.3% H2O, 13.5% tannin; outer cortex
|
||
(small trees) 14.6 and 7.9, outer cortex (large trees) 14.2 and 10.8; twig bark 13.1 and
|
||
14.8, bole bark (small trees) 16.3 and 31.7; whereas the bole bark of large trees contains
|
||
12.5% H2O, 42.3% tannin. Bark contains from ca.4 to 53.12% tannin, according to Watt
|
||
and Breyer-Brandwijk^^^ and The Wealth of India
|
||
Toxicity — Eating too much (bark) is dangerous.The skull and crossbones indicate
|
||
that Menninger^^ considers the “ nuts” to be poisonous.
|
||
Description — Evergreen tree 8 to 25(to 35) m high, with straight trunk 40 to 90 cm in
|
||
diameter, buttressed at base, and with many upright pneumatophores rising to 45 cm from
|
||
Handbook of Nuts
|
||
56
|
||
long horizontal roots. Bark gray to blackish, smooth to roughly fissured, thick; inner bark
|
||
reddish. Leaves opposite, elliptical, 9 to 20 cm long, 5 to 7 cm wide, acute at both ends,
|
||
entire, without visible veins, thick, leathery, glabrous. Petioles 2 to 4.5 cm long. Flowers
|
||
single in leaf axils, 3 to 4 cm long, usually drooping on stalk of 1 to 2.5 cm, red to yellowish
|
||
or cream-colored, with red to pink-red bell-shaped hypanthium. Calyx with 10 to 14 very
|
||
narrow, leathery lobes. Petals 10 to 14, 13 to 15 mm long, white turning brown, each with
|
||
2 narrow lobes ending in 3 to 4 bristles. Stamens 2, nearly hidden at base of each petal.
|
||
Pistil with inferior 3- to 4-celled ovary, each cell with 2 ovules; style slender; stigma with
|
||
3 to 4 short forks. Berry drooping, ovoid or turbinate, 2 to 2.5 cm long. Seed 1, viviparous,
|
||
finally 1.5 to 2 cm in diameter.
|
||
Germplasm — Reported from the Hindustani, African, Australian, and Indonesian-In-
|
||
dochina Centers of Diversity, Burma mangrove, or cvs thereof, is reported to tolerate alkali,
|
||
disease, high pH, insects, pest, salt, shade, waterlogging.
|
||
Distribution — Tropical South and East Africa, Madagascar, Seychelles, Sri Lanka,
|
||
southeastern Asia, Ryukyu; throughout Malaysia to Philippines, Australia, Micronesia, and
|
||
Polynesia. Introduced into Hawaii.'**
|
||
Ecology — Estimated to range from Tropical Moist to Rain through Subtropical Moist
|
||
to Rain Forest Life Zones, Burma mangrove is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of
|
||
10 to 80 dm, annual temperature of 20 to 26°C, and pH of 6.0 to 8.5. One of the largest
|
||
trees in the Malayan mangroves, usually on drier well-aerated soils toward the landward
|
||
side, often dominating with occasional stems >35 m tall. It is probably the longest-lived
|
||
of the mangroves. It can stand “ any amount of shade,M ostly on brackish or saline silts
|
||
of depositing shores and marshes.
|
||
Cultivation — According to the NAS,^^^ planting is usually not needed, because natural
|
||
regeneration is so successful. In Avicennia and Rhizophora, direct seeding results in ca.90%
|
||
survival.
|
||
Harvesting — Mostly harvested from natural stands. Species of Rhizophoraceae, growing
|
||
only from the tips of the branches, are often killed by indiscriminate lopping of branches.
|
||
After felling, its regeneration is often very scant and there is danger of overgrowth by
|
||
Acrostichum (but once seedlings have established themselves, the “ fern acts rather as a
|
||
nurse, forcing the seedling up.“ ).''^®
|
||
Yields and economics — A good mangrove stand can show annual productivity of 10
|
||
to 20(to 25) MT/ha/year, but for firewood purposes, I would reduce that to 10 to 20 (to 25)
|
||
m^/ha/year, figuring that as optimal rather than average. Litter-fall may account for 1/3 to
|
||
1/2 of above-ground productivity. Because of the heaviness of the wood, a cubic meter of
|
||
mangrove wood is generally more valuable than the wood of other species.
|
||
Energy — Wood widely used for charcoal and fuel.'** For charcoal, the tree seems to
|
||
rank with Rhizophora, with an even higher calorific value. According to The Wealth of
|
||
Indiaf^ the calorific value of moisture-free sapwood is 5,169 cals, heartwood 5,019.
|
||
Biotic factors — No data available.
|
||
57
|
||
BUCHANANIA LANZAN Spreng. (ANACARDIACEAE) Chirauli Nut, Cuddapah Almond,
|
||
Cheronjee, Chironjii, Almondette
|
||
Syn.: B. latifolia Roxb.
|
||
Uses — Cuddapah almond is cultivated for the fresh fruit, which has a very agreeable
|
||
flavor. The delicate nutty-flavored seed is very nutritious, especially when roasted. Seeds
|
||
are consumed by natives of India and Burma, roasted with milk or as sweetmeats. Seeds
|
||
are also the source of an excellent oil, which is light yellow, sweet, mild with pleasant
|
||
aroma, and used as a substitute for olive oil or almond oil in confectionery, and in medicinal
|
||
preparations — especially applied to glandular swellings of the neck. A gum (Chironji-
|
||
kigond) is sold at bazaars in India and has adhesive properties. Kernels are used as important
|
||
articles of trade, in exchange for salt, grain, and cloth. Leaves are used as fodder in Bombay
|
||
and Punjab. Bark and fruits furnish a natural varnish. A pellucid gum, obtained from wounds
|
||
on stems, is used in diarrhea. Used to tan leathers of dark reddish-brown color with a
|
||
somewhat stiff, harsh texture. Wood is light gray to grayish-brown, sometimes with a faint
|
||
yellow tinge, to dark-brown in heartwood of old trees, rough, very light, straight-grained,
|
||
coarse-textured, moderately strong, used for boxes, yokes, doors, cheap furniture, posts,
|
||
and bedsteads. Berar females use the pounded kernels to remove facial spots and
|
||
blemishes.
|
||
Folk medicine — Reported to be antidotal for fish poisoning and scorpion stings, al
|
||
mondette is a folk remedy for asthma, bronchitis, bums, cholera, consumption, cough,
|
||
diarrhea, dysuria, fever, gingivitis, phthisis, and snakebite.Describing the genus Buck-
|
||
anania as therapeutically inert, Kirtikar and Basu^^^ go on to describe the almondette as
|
||
used in the Ayurvedic and Yunani systems of medicines. Ayurvedics use the roots for
|
||
biliousness and blood disorders; the fruits for blood diseases, fevers, impotence, thirst, and
|
||
ulcers; the aphrodisiac cardiotonic seeds for biliousness. Yunani consider the seed aphro
|
||
disiac, expectorant, stomachic, and tonic. Useful in fever, gleet, and urinary concretions,
|
||
58 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
it is believed to cause headache. Yunani regard the leaf juice as antibilious, aphrodisiac,
|
||
depurative, digestive, expectorant, purgative, and refrigerant. The seed oil is applied to
|
||
glandular swellings on the neck. It is also used for itch, pimples, and prickly heat. In Madras,
|
||
the gum is given with goat’s milk for intercostal pain. Hakims apply the fruit to inflamed
|
||
or indurate tongue.^'
|
||
Chemistry — Seeds contain 51.8% oil, 12.1% starch, 21.6% protein, 5% sugar;^^^ bark
|
||
contains 13.4% tannin.Kernels also contain 152 mg Ca and 499 mg P (per 1(X) g); deficient
|
||
in amino acids lysine and methionine.The fatty acid composition of B. lanzan seed oil,
|
||
determined by urea complex formation and GLC, was found to be: myristic, 0.6%, palmitic,
|
||
33.4%, stearic, 6.3%, oleic, 53.7%, and linoleic, 6.0%. Triglyceride compositions of the
|
||
native seed oil were calculated from the fatty acid compositions of the triglycerides and of
|
||
the corresponding 2-monoglycerides produced by pancreatic lipase hydrolysis. The oil is
|
||
composed of 3.2, 35.8, 45.5, and 15.5% trisaturated, monounsaturated disaturated, diun-
|
||
saturated monosaturated, and triunsaturated glycerides, respectively. The special character
|
||
istics of B. lanzan seed oil is its content of 22.7, 31.0, and 11.3% dipalmitoolein,
|
||
dioleopalmitin, and triolein, respectively. The percent trisaturated glyceride content of the
|
||
oil increased from 3.2 to 7.5 by the process of randomization. On directed interesterification,
|
||
the oil yielded a product with a slip-point of 41.5°C which may be suitable as a coating
|
||
material for delayed action tablets. The oil also appears to be a promising commercial source
|
||
of palmitic and oleic acids.
|
||
Description — Moderate-sized tree, up to 17 m tall and a girth of 1.3 m; young branches
|
||
pubescent; leaves alternate, simple, leathery, entire, 12 to 25 x 6 to 12.5 cm, petioled;
|
||
flowers small, sessile, white, monoecious, in terminal or axillary panicles, crowded; calyx
|
||
short, persistent, the lobes ciliate; petals 4 to 5, ca. 2.5 mm long, oblong, recurved; stamens
|
||
8 to 10, free, inserted at base of disk; fruit black, single-seeded drupe, 1.3 cm in diameter,
|
||
with scanty flesh; stone crustaceous or bony, 2-valved; seeds (kernels) gibbous, acute at
|
||
one end, size of small cherries. Flowers spring; fruits summer.
|
||
Germplasm — Reported for the Hindustani Center of Diversity, almondette, or cvs
|
||
thereof, is reported to tolerate savanna, slope, and dry deciduous forests.
|
||
Distribution — Native to Southeast Asia, mostly India, Burma, and Indochina, especially
|
||
in mountainous regions, almondette is widely cultivated throughout India, ascending to 10(X)
|
||
m in northwestern India and Nepal, spreading towards Malaya, Thailand, and Yunan.^^^
|
||
Ecology — Ranging from Subtropical Moist to Tropical Dry through Wet Forest Life
|
||
Zones, almondette is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 7 to 40 dm, annual tem
|
||
perature of 23 to 25°C, and pH of 5.0 to 6.0. Trees are found in dry deciduous forests.
|
||
Within its natural habitat it is a useful tree for covering dry hillsides.
|
||
Cultivation — Propagated from seed; not formally cultivated.
|
||
Harvesting — Harvested from the wild.^®
|
||
Yields and Economics — In Madras, a tree will yield ca.0.4 kg gum/year. Wood is
|
||
rather cheap; in 1937, Bombay Rs 25 to 35 per ton, in Orissa, Rs 19 per ton. Fruits are
|
||
frequently sold at bazaars in India, at about 4 to 6 annas per It takes 36 kg nuts to
|
||
yield 10 kg oil as expressed in India.
|
||
Energy — In Tropical Dry Forest near Varanasi, Shorea robusta may be dominant,
|
||
followed by Buchanania lanzan, with standing biomass of 26.8 and 8.3 MT/ha and annual
|
||
net production of 2.21 and 0.79 MT/ha respectively. Litter amounts to 1.51 MT and 0.58
|
||
MT/ha respectively A seedling in its first year will produce only 0.19 g biomass, compared
|
||
to 5.98 g for Butea monosperma, 12.43 g for Areca catechu.^^^
|
||
Biotic factors — Tree attacked by the fungus Marasmius sp. and by the parasitic flowering
|
||
plant, Dendrophthoe falcata.^^^
|
||
59
|
||
BUTYROSPERMUM PARADOXUM (Gaertn.f.) Hepper (SAPOTACEAE)
|
||
Shea Nut,
|
||
Butterseed
|
||
Inch: B, parkii
|
||
Uses — An important oil-producing tree, it is the source of shea butter, an edible fat or
|
||
vegetable butter extracted from the ripe seeds. Natives use shea butter as cooking fat, an
|
||
illuminant, a medicinal ointment, dressing for the hair, and for making soap. Shea nut meal
|
||
used for hog-feed, having 60% carbohydrate and 12% protein. Gutta-shea is a reddish
|
||
exudation obtained by tapping the tree with removal of pieces of bark with a narrow axe.
|
||
Latex is removed on the following day, boiled and cleaned of dirt and bark; it is a mixture
|
||
of resin and gutta, called “ balata” or “ Red Kano rubber’ Wood is dull red, very heavy,
|
||
termite-proof, difficult to work, but takes a good polish and is very durable. Used for wooden
|
||
bowls, mortars and pestles; used as firewood, producing great heat and making charcoal.
|
||
In Sierra Leone, used for ribs of boats and in marine workshops. Ashes from burning of
|
||
wood commonly used as the lye in indigo dyeing. Flowers provide bee nectar.
|
||
Folk medicine — Nakanis of West Africa use the bark decoction to bathe children and
|
||
as a medicine. On the Ivory Coast, it is used in baths and sitz-baths to facilitate delivery.
|
||
Lobis use the leaf decoction as an eye bath. Young leaves are used in steam vapors to
|
||
alleviate headache. Oil used as a topical emollient and vehicle for other pharmaceuticals.
|
||
Medicinally, butter used for rubbing on rheumatic pains or mixed with other medicines to
|
||
replace other oils. Also used both internally and externally on horses for galls and other
|
||
sores. Root-bark, boiled and pounded, applied to chronic sores in horses. Crushed bark used
|
||
as a remedy for leprosy. Latex is not poisonous, but a decoction of the bark is lethal. Root
|
||
mixed with scourings of tobacco as a poison.^’
|
||
Chemistry — Per 100 g, the seed (ZMB) is reported to contain 622 calories, 7.3 g protein,
|
||
52.6 g fat, 38.2 g total carbohydrate, 5.6 g fiber, 1.8 g ash, 107 mg Ca, 43 mg P, 3.2 mg
|
||
60 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
Fe, and 0.56 mg thiamine.®^ The fat contains 45.6% oleic acid, 44.3% stearic acid, 5.5%
|
||
linoleic acid. Of the 2 monoglycerides, 82.1% was oleates and 14% linoleates.^^^ Another
|
||
report puts it at 5.7% palmitic, 41.0% stearic, 49.0% oleic, and 4.3% linoleic. Allantoin
|
||
and its intermediary products constitute 24 to 28% of the total N of a water extract of defatted
|
||
shea kernel meal.^* Alpha- and beta-amyrin, basseol, parkeol, and lupeol are also reported.
|
||
According to Roche and Michel,the seed protein contains 8.2% arginine, 1.0% cystine,
|
||
9.9% leucine, 2.9% phenylalanine, 1.1% tryptophane, and 1.4% valine.
|
||
Description — Stout, much-branched tree to 20 m tall; crown spreading, bark usually
|
||
gray or blackish, deeply fissured and splitting into squarish or rectangular corky scales;
|
||
short-shoots with conspicuous angular leaf-base scars; young shoots, petioles and flower
|
||
buds with rusty pubescence. Leaves oblong to ovate-oblong, 10 to 25 cm long, 4.5 to 14
|
||
cm broad, rounded at apex, base acute to broadly cuneate, margin undulate and thickened;
|
||
the petioles one-third to one-half the length of lamina; both surfaces either pubescent or
|
||
glabrescent, lateral veins 20 to 30 on each side, regularly and closely spaced, slightly arcuate;
|
||
leaves reddish when young flowers fragrant, in dense clusters, at tips of branchlets, above
|
||
leaves of previous year; pedicels up to 3 cm long, puberulous to densely pubescent; outer
|
||
sepals lanceolate, 9 to 14 mm long, 3.5 to 6 mm broad, pubescent or more or less floccose
|
||
externally; inner sepals slightly smaller; corolla creamy white, tube 2.5 to 4 mm long,
|
||
glabrous or pilose externally, lobes broadly ovate, 7 to 11 mm long, 4.5 to 7 mm broad;
|
||
filaments 7 to 12 mm long, anthers more or less lanceolate, up to 4.5 mm long; staminodes
|
||
up to 8 mm long; style 8 to 15 mm long. Fruit ellipsoid, greenish, up to 6.5 cm long, 4.5
|
||
cm in diameter, subglabrous or with pubescence persistent in patches, containing a sweet
|
||
pulp surrounding the seed. Seed up to 5 cm long, 3.5 cm in diameter, usually solitary,
|
||
sometimes up to 3 per fruit, shining dark-brown, with a large white scar on one side.
|
||
Germination cryptocotylar.^^®
|
||
Germplasm — Reported from the African Center of Diversity, shea nut, or cvs thereof,
|
||
is reported to tolerate drought, fire, grazing, laterite, savanna, and slope.Several mor
|
||
phological and physiological forms differ in shape and size of fruits and seeds, and in
|
||
chemical analysis of kernels and fruit, thickness of pericarp, and early fruiting period. Besides
|
||
the common type, there are two recognized varieties or subspecies: subsp. parkii (G.Don)
|
||
Hepper {Butyrospermum parkii (G.Don) Kotschy, Brassia parkii G.Don) is less dense a
|
||
plant, with shorter indumentum, smaller flowers, and the style is 8 to 12 mm long; subsp.
|
||
niloticum (Kotschy) Hepper has densely ferrugineous parts, with a corolla tube pilose ex
|
||
ternally, lobes 9.5 to 11 mm long, 6.5 to 7 mm broad, filaments 10 to 12 mm long, and
|
||
the style 12 to 15 mm long.^^®
|
||
Distribution — Widespread throughout tropical Africa from West Africa (Liberia, Gold
|
||
Coast, Nigeria, Togo, Dahomey, Senegal, Sierra Leone) to Sudan and Uganda, south to
|
||
eastern Congo.
|
||
Ecology — Ranging from Subtropical Dry to Wet through Tropical Dry to Moist Forest
|
||
Life Zones, shea nut is estimated to tolerate annual precipitation of 8 to 25 dm, annual
|
||
temperature of 23 to 2TC, and pH of 4.9 to 6.5.®^ Frequent in savanna regions or as scattered
|
||
trees in grasslands across central Africa from West Africa to East Africa. Often protected
|
||
and preserved in cultivated land. Common on dry laterite slopes, but not in alluvial hollows
|
||
or land subject to flooding. Grows from 950 to 1,500 m elevations.^^®
|
||
Cultivation — Seeds germinate readily on the ground under natural conditions. Fresh
|
||
seed is essential. Seedlings develop a very long taproot, making transplanting hazardous.
|
||
Trees grow very slowly from seed, bearing fruit in 12 to 15 years, taking up to 30 years to
|
||
reach maturity. Natural propagation is chiefly from root-suckers.^^®
|
||
Harvesting — Fruits mostly harvested at end of July, usually during the rainy season.
|
||
Shea oil is the native product expressed from kernels in Europe; shea butter is material
|
||
prepared by native methods. In West Africa, the preparation of shea butter is woman’s work.
|
||
61
|
||
In Nigeria, nuts are collected by one tribe, sold to another, and the butter bartered back.
|
||
Preparation of shea butter consists of pounding usually roasted kernels in mortar to a coarse
|
||
pulp, and then grinding this into a fine oily paste with chocolate aroma. Tannin present
|
||
makes this form inedible. In some areas, this mass is further worked with a little water in
|
||
a large pot in the ground, followed by hand-kneading and washing in cold water. From this
|
||
the butter is extracted by boiling and skimming; then it is boiled again to purify further,
|
||
after which it is transferred to molds. Locally, nuts are boiled before cracking; extraction
|
||
is made from the sun-dried kernels. Ordinary oven-drying causes no loss of oil. Clean nuts
|
||
may be roasted until the latex coagulates and the dry nuts stored. In other areas, fruits are
|
||
spread in the sun until the pulp separates, or they are fermented by being kept moist for
|
||
weeks or months in earthenware jars, and then the nuts are subsequently roasted.
|
||
Yields and economics — Using native processing approaches, it takes about 4 kg kernels
|
||
to yield 1 kg butter. Thoroughly dried kernels represent about one-third the weight of the
|
||
fresh nuts. By native standards, a kerosene tin containing about 12.23 kg (27 lb) kernels
|
||
yield 3.17 kg (7 lb) shea butter. Kernels contain 45 to 55% by weight of fat, but may be
|
||
as high as 60%, and 9% proteins. The Giddanchi type of kernel averages 3.2 to 6 cm long,
|
||
yielding 52.4% of fat. The shea butter tree has economic importance as an oil-seed produced
|
||
under natural conditions in great abundance in regions where the oil palm does not grow
|
||
and in areas which are otherwise unproductive. A large volume of shea nuts is exported
|
||
annually from West Africa, mainly to Holland and Belgium, the chief importers. Belgium
|
||
imports most of the shea butter. In Uganda, a small local market developed during World
|
||
War 11.^^’^""’^"«
|
||
Energy — As fuel, the wood gives out great heat. Charcoal is prepared from it in some
|
||
districts.
|
||
Biotic factors — Where trees are subjected to annual grass-burning, they are frequently
|
||
stunted and twisted. The thick corky base gives some protection against fire. Trees are
|
||
frequently grazed by wild animals and the sugary pulp is eaten by them, but not the nut of
|
||
the fallen fruit. Unripe fruit exudes latex which remains in the ripe nut but disappears from
|
||
the ripe pulp. In Senegal, caterpillars of C irina butyrosperm i cause defoliation; dried, these
|
||
caterpillars have long been an article of food in Nigerian markets under the name of mone-
|
||
mone (Yoruba). Fungi attacking this tree include: A spergillu s fla vu s, A. niger, A. tam arii,
|
||
B otryodiplodia theobrom ae, C ephaleuros m y coidea, C ercospora butyrosperm i, F usicladium
|
||
butyrosperm i, M eliola butyrosperm i, H elm inthosporium cojfeae, O othyrium butyrosperm i,
|
||
and P estalotia h eterospora. Parasitic on the tree are L oranthus dodon aefoliu s, L. globiferus
|
||
var. salicifoliu s, and L. rufescens; and F icus may be epiphytic on the tree, causing reduction
|
||
in fruit yield.
|
||
62 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
CALAMUS ROTAN G L. and other species (ARECACEAE) — Rattan Cane, Rotang Cane
|
||
Uses — Tender shoots and seed edible. The sweet pulp around the seeds is also edible.
|
||
Stems provide drinking water, especially in the rainy season.^'® Sturtevant^*^ describes the
|
||
fruit as roundish, large as a hazelnut, and covered with small, shining, imbriate scales.
|
||
Natives generally suck out the subacid pulp which surrounds the kernels to quench the thirst.
|
||
Sometimes the fruit is pickled with salt and eaten at tea time. Seeds are eaten by aborigines.
|
||
Stems and branches form rattan cane of commerce, used as props for crop plants, for
|
||
manufacture of furniture, baskets, wicker-work, umbrella ribs, cables, and ropes. Rattan
|
||
ropes are used for dragging heavy weights and for tethering wild animals. Cordage and
|
||
cables are made by twisting together two or more canes. Canes also are used for building
|
||
boats, suspension bridges, and as a substitute for whale-bone. Jungle experts make fire by
|
||
rubbing them backwards and forwards as fast as possible under a branch of dry soft wood
|
||
in which a hole has been scooped and lined with wooden dust.^^"^
|
||
Folk medicine — Used for abdominal tumors in India,Root given for chronic fevers,
|
||
and used as antidote to snake venom. Leaves used in diseases of blood and in biliousness.
|
||
Wood is a vermifuge.Serrano,"^*® without mentioning species, cited asthma, diarrhea,
|
||
enterosis, rheumatism, and snake-bite as ailments treated with rattan.
|
||
Chemistry — Per 100 g, the fruit of the figured species (C. ornatus) is reported to contain
|
||
79 calories, 79.0 g H2O, 0.6 g protein, 1.2 g fat, 18.6 g total carbohydrate, 0.5 g fiber,
|
||
0.6 g ash, 19 mg Ca, 10 mg P, 1.7 mg Fe, 0.06 mg thiamine, 0.01 mg riboflavin, 0.9 mg
|
||
niacin, and 5 mg ascorbic acid.®^
|
||
Toxicity — Scrapings from the bark of glossy-coated cane species may contain enough
|
||
silica to act as an irritant to the mucous membranes.
|
||
Description — Stems scandent or climbing, very slender; to as much as 200 m long.
|
||
63
|
||
leaf-sheaths sparingly armed with short, flat spines, glabrous. Leaves 60 to 90 cm long, on
|
||
short petioles with small, straight or recurved spines; leaflets numerous, narrowly lanceolate,
|
||
20 to 23 cm long, 1.3 to 2 cm broad, median costa unarmed on both surfaces, or armed
|
||
beneath only, lateral costa unarmed on both surfaces. Male spadix slender, very long,
|
||
branched, whip-like, sparingly spinous; female flowers scattered along slender branches of
|
||
spadix; spikelets 1.3 to 2.5 cm long, recurved. Fruit globose to subglobose, very pale, 1.6
|
||
to 1.8 cm in diameter; scales many, in vertical rows, straw-colored.
|
||
Germplasm — Reported to tolerate slope and shade, the rattan genus is from the Hin
|
||
dustani and Indochina-Indonesia Center of Diversity. It contains ca.300 difficulty distin
|
||
guishable species of the moister tropics of the Old World (Asia, Africa). Perhaps rattans,
|
||
climbing spiny palms, represent 600 species in ca.l5 genera, more used for furniture and
|
||
construction than for the nuts. Lapis"^“ discusses the 12 major Philippine species, illustrating
|
||
3 species of Calamus.
|
||
Distribution — Native to India, Bengal, Assam, and Sri Lanka^^^ (Calamus rotang),
|
||
with other species, extending to Borneo, the Philippines.
|
||
Ecology — Ranging from Subtropical Moist to Tropical Moist through Wet Forest Life
|
||
Zones, rattan is reported from areas with annual precipitation of 17.3 to 42.9 dm (mean of
|
||
4 cases = 32.1 dm), annual temperature of 23.5 to 27.4°C (mean of 4 cases = 25.7°C),
|
||
and pH of 4.5 to 5 (mean of 2 cases = 4.8). Once common in moist localities, in tropical
|
||
to subtropical climate, now locally overharvested. Does not tolerate any frost. Apparently
|
||
fares better in primary than secondary forest.Young plants thrive in soil containing a
|
||
large quantity of leaf mold. Older plants need soil of a more lasting nature.
|
||
Cultivation — A quantity of bonemeal and charcoal in the soil may be advantageous.“^
|
||
Young plants thrive in rooting media rich with leaf mold. Older trees need more substantial
|
||
soil with ground bone, charcoal nutrients, and plenty of water.Loams are best, clay loams
|
||
okay. For seed extraction, the fruits are peeled and fermented in water for ca.24 hr., then
|
||
squeezed, after which clean seeds settle to the bottom. These are then removed to dry in
|
||
the shade. Then they are stratified or mixed with moist sawdust for several days. To prevent
|
||
fungal infestation, seeds are treated with ca.0.5 lb sodium pentachloropentate, and dissolved
|
||
in 3 gallons distilled water. Germination starts after 68 to 85 days. Nursery-grown seedlings
|
||
or earthballed wild plants, as well as young suckers, can be used as planting stock. Seedlings
|
||
15 cm tall are ready for planting, if they have 4 to 5 leaves. Two seedlings are placed in
|
||
each hole, 2m x 2m, at the beginning. Fertilization at 6 g per plant 20:10:5 is recom
|
||
mended.During the first 2 to 3 years, humus mulching encourages growth. At this point,
|
||
more light is desirable. Some Borneo farmers, in abandoning their temporary forest food
|
||
plots, plant rattans, letting the forest reclaim the plot, returning 7 to 15 years later to harvest
|
||
rattan and begin food cropping again.
|
||
Harvesting — Some cultivated trees yield usable canes in 6 years. Full production occurs
|
||
in 15 years. At this age, canes average about 30 m long, 2.5 cm in diameter. Mature rattans
|
||
can be cut at the base and divided into sections 4 to 5 m long. Thereafter, canes can be cut
|
||
about every 4 years, from suckers. Canes should be harvested during the dry season, and
|
||
dried and processed promptly. Canes are scraped to remove the thin silicious coating, bringing
|
||
out its yellowish luster. Canes should then be dried to less than 20% moisture. Kilns at dry
|
||
bulb temperatures of ca.65°C, wet bulb temperatures of ca.45°C, will bring moisture contents
|
||
to 12 to 14% in ca.5 days. A dryer design is discussed by Serrano.Stain fungi may be
|
||
avoided by treatment of 7 pounds sodium pentachlorophenate in 100 gallons water, applied
|
||
the same day the canes are cut. Post-powder beetles may be prevented by soaking the poles
|
||
for 3 min in 0.5% aqueous solutions of Lindane or Dieldrin. The canes may also be steeped
|
||
in a mixture of diesel oil and coconut or palm oil prior to a final drying.
|
||
Yields and Economics — Rattan cane is important in India and elsewhere for the man
|
||
ufacture of cane-bottom chairs, etc. Many species of the large genus are used in various
|
||
64 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
parts of the world for similar purposes.In the Philippines, the rattan industry employs
|
||
10,000 workers. One Philippine joumaP*^ suggested that, already, raw rattan was worth
|
||
$50 million (U.S.), with the finished manufactured rattan products worth $1.2 billion. In
|
||
the Philippines, in 1977, there was a report of nearly 66 tons split rattan and nearly 4,000,000
|
||
linear meters of unsplit rattan.B y 1983, it was closer to 5,000,000 linear meters."^'®
|
||
Among Tagbanua ethnics in the Philippines, rattan collecting returned ca. $1.00 to $5.00/day
|
||
whereas agriculture returned closer to $1.00/day."^’^ But in the 1950s and 1960s, a worker
|
||
could collect 200 5-m canes a day, while in 1981, 35 to 50 canes was par, each worth little
|
||
more than $0.05.
|
||
Energy — In Peninsular Malaysia, mean stem lengths of C alam us m anan was only 1.3
|
||
m after 6 years, but the longest stem was ca.l8 m. C alam us caesius can grow as much as
|
||
5 to 6 m/year for the first 5 years of planting. In Sabah, the number of aerial stems doubled
|
||
each year for the first 3 years in C. caesius, first 4 years for C. t r a c h y l o p h e u s Trial
|
||
cultivation"^'^ of C alam us ornatus in the Philippines yielded canes less than 2 m long, not
|
||
suggesting much biomass potential. Rejects and prunings might be useful for fuel.
|
||
Biotic factors — Rattan plants are attacked by the fungi C atacaum ella calam icola,
|
||
D oratom yces tenuis, and Sphaerodothis coimbatorica,^^^ Undesirable stains are caused by
|
||
C eratocystis an d D iplodia.
|
||
65
|
||
CANARIUM INDICUM L. (BURSERACEAE) — Java-Almond, Kanari, Kenari
|
||
Syn.: Canarium amboinense Hochr., Canarium commune L., Canarium mehenbeth-
|
||
ene Gaertn., Canarium moluccanum Bl., Canarium subtruncatum Engl., Can
|
||
arium shortlandicum Rech., Canarium polyphyllum Krause, Canarium
|
||
grandistipulatum Lauterbach, and Canarium nungi Guillaumin.
|
||
Uses — Seeds are highly regarded in Melanesia as a food, a delicacy, and in pastries as
|
||
a substitute for almonds. Mature fruits, dried over fires, are an important stored food in the
|
||
Solomon Islands. Nuts are ground and added to grated taro and coconut c re a m .A n
|
||
emulsion of seeds is used in baby-foods. Oil from the seeds is used as a substitute for
|
||
coconut oil for cooking and illumination. Resin from the stems (Getah kanari) has the scent
|
||
of eugenol and is used in printing inks and varnishes. It is the source of a Manila elemi, a
|
||
resin, used as an incense and fixative in the perfume industry, and for varnishes. Oil derived
|
||
from the resin is also employed in soap and cosmetics. Old stems are used as fuel and when
|
||
burning lime. Wood may be used in canoe building and paddles are made from the buttresses.
|
||
Parts of the plant are used to make cloth and to make moth-repelling bookcases. The tree
|
||
is planted as a shade-tree in nutmeg plantations and as a road-side tree.^^®
|
||
Folk medicine — Resin is applied to indolent ulcers.The fruit is laxative. Medicinally
|
||
(in Java), it is used as an incense for sick persons to keep the atmosphere clean.
|
||
Chemistry — Seeds contain 3.8% moisture, 19.6% protein, 72.8% fat, and 3.8% ash.®^
|
||
The oil contains 10.2% stearic, 30.5% palmitic, 39.9% oleic, 18.7% linoleic, and 0.7%
|
||
linolenic acids. The oleoresin which oozes from the trunk contains 10.4% essential oil,
|
||
81.8% resin, 3.7% water solubles, and 2.5% water. The essential oil contains ca. 34%
|
||
anethole and a small quantity of terpenes.^®’^*"*
|
||
Description — Tree grows up to 40 m, to 1 m in diameter, with buttresses; branchlets
|
||
7 to 13 mm thick, glabrescent. Leaves are compound, 3-8 pairs of leaflets, glabrous, with
|
||
66 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
persistent ovate to oblong stipules 1.5 to 2 cm long and 1.2 to 1.4 cm wide, pulverulent to
|
||
glabrous; leaflets oblong-obovate to oblong-lanceolate, 7 to 35 cm long and 3.5 to 16 cm
|
||
wide, on long slender petiolules (to 3 cm long); blades herbaceous to coriaceous, the base
|
||
oblique, rounded to broadly cuneate, the apex gradually to bluntly acuminate, margin entire;
|
||
inflorescences terminal, many-flowered, 15 to 40 cm long, minutely tomentose. Flowers
|
||
tomentose, male ones subsessile, about 1 cm long, females short-stalked, up to 1.5 cm long,
|
||
with a concave receptacle; calyx in male flowers 5 to 7 mm long, in females 7 to 10 mm;
|
||
stamens glabrous, in male flowers free; in females adnate to disk; pistil in male flowers
|
||
minute or none, in female glabrous; fruiting clusters with up to 30 fruits; fruits ovoid, round
|
||
to slightly triangular in cross-section, 3.5 to 6 cm long and 2 to 4 cm in diameter, glabrous;
|
||
pyrene rounded triangular in cross-section, smooth except the 3 more-or-less acute ribs at
|
||
base and apex; lids 3 to 4 mm thick; seeds usually 1, the sterile cells slightly reduced.
|
||
Flowers mainly October to December fruits July to December.
|
||
Germplasm — Reported from the Indochinese-Indonesian Center of Diversity, Java
|
||
almond, or cvs thereof, is reported to tolerate high pH.®^ Several races are cultivated in
|
||
Melanesia, varying in form and size of fruits. Two botanical varieties are recognized: (1)
|
||
var. indicum , with branchlets up to 13 mm thick; stipules up to 6 by 5 cm, dentate; leaves
|
||
up to 7 jugate; leaflets up to 28 by 11 cm, herbaceous; and fruits up to 6 x 3 cm. This is
|
||
the more widespread variety and the more cultivated form. (2) var. platycerioideu m Leen-
|
||
houts, with branchlets up to 2.5 cm thick; stipules sometimes inserted on the bases of the
|
||
petiole only; leaves 5 to 8 Jugate, 80 to 135 cm long; leaflets inequilateral, ovate, 25 to 35
|
||
X 13 to 16 cm; fruits 6 by 3.5 to 4 cm. Found only on New Guinea up to altitudes of 30
|
||
178, 179,278
|
||
m.
|
||
Distribution — Native to Moluccas (Temate, Sula, Ceram, Ambon, Kai), the North
|
||
Celebes (where it may be naturalized), and Indonesia (New Guinea, New Britain, New
|
||
Ireland, Solomon Islands, and New Hebrides).
|
||
Ecology — Ranging from Subtropical Dry to Moist through Tropical Dry to Moist Forest
|
||
Life Zones, Java almond is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 11 to 24 dm (mean
|
||
of cases = 18), annual temperature of 24 to 2 T C (mean of 3 cases = 25.5), and pH of
|
||
5.3 to 8.1 (mean of 2 cases == 6.7).^^ Java almond is found in rain-forest at low altitudes,
|
||
rarely native above 250 m. However, it is planted up to 600 m or more.^^®
|
||
Cultivation — Sprouted seeds or larger seedlings are transplanted.
|
||
Harvesting — Fruiting peaks at August to October and February to April in Santa Cruz,
|
||
Solomon Islands, but fruits are available year-round. In the Solomon Islands, where Can-
|
||
arium is ‘’probably the most important economic tree species” , the plants are usually
|
||
accepted as wild forest species, exploited by gathering, on the basis of recognized individual
|
||
ownership.
|
||
Yields and economics — Large fruited forms or species on Santa Cruz are said to yield
|
||
fewer fruits than the smaller fruited forms.
|
||
Energy — Seed oil and resin might be viewed for energy potential, over and above the
|
||
fuel wood. The resin was used for illumination in the Solomon Islands. The abundance of
|
||
Canarium on Ndenia Island may explain why A gathis resin was not exploited.
|
||
Biotic factors — The following fungi are known to attack Java almond: A edicium pu l-
|
||
neyensis, M eliola canarii, O udesm ansiella canarii, Skierka canarii, and U stilina zonata.
|
||
Seeds dispersed by fruit bats (P ter opus).
|
||
67
|
||
CANARIUM OVATUM Engl. (BURSERACEAE) — Pili Nut, Philippine Nut
|
||
Uses — The pulp is edible when cooked and yields a cooking oil. The nut or kernel is
|
||
also edible and excellent after roasting. It also yields a good cooking oil.^ Menninger^®^
|
||
describes this as the “ most important of all the nuts in the world to the millions of people
|
||
who depend on it for food.” Abarquez' says pili is second only to cashew as a food nut in
|
||
the Philippines, where it is considered superior to almonds. The nuts have been used to
|
||
adulterate chocolate.This species is one source of the commercial resin traded as Manila
|
||
elemi. Spaniards repaired their ships, in colonial days, with gum elemi. Manila elemi is a
|
||
yellowish-greenish-white, sticky, soft, opaque, fragrant oil mass which gradually becomes
|
||
hard when exposed. It is a source of a kind of paper for window-panes as a substitute for
|
||
glass, and is used in the preparation of medicinal ointment. It is an important ingredient in
|
||
plastics, printing inks for lithographic works, perfumes, and plasters. This resin gives tough
|
||
ness and elasticity to lacquer, varnish, and paint products. Locally, it is used to caulk boats
|
||
and as an illuminant for native torches. Recently, the possibility of extracting fuel from
|
||
resin has proved enticing, suggesting the possibility of driving a car “ run by a tree.“ '
|
||
According to Garcia, pili plantations, in pure stand, can be interplanted with cassava, ginger,
|
||
papaya, pineapple, coffee, cacao, bananas, and taro.
|
||
Folk medicine — The “ elemi” was once used as an ointment for healing wounds.
|
||
Filipinos use the crushed emulsion of the kernels as a substitute for milk for infants. Uncooked
|
||
nuts are purgative.
|
||
Chemistry — Per 100 g, the seed (ZMB) is reported to contain 699 to 714 calories, 12.2
|
||
to 15.6 g protein, 73.2 to 75.9 g fat, 6.0 to 10.8 g total carbohydrate, 2.3 to 3.5 g fiber,
|
||
3.0 to 3.6 g ash, 130 to 180 mg Ca, 71 to 591 mg P, 2.9 to 4.8 mg Fe, 3.2 to 3.3 mg Na,
|
||
521 to 537 mg K, 26 to 35 |xg beta-carotene equivalent. 0.75 to 1.04 mg thiamine, 0.07
|
||
to 0.13 mg riboflavin, 0.44 to 0.58 mg niacin, and 0 to 25 mg ascorbic acid.®^ Campbell
|
||
reports the kernel contains 74% fat, 12% protein, and 5% starch.^ Rosengarten reports
|
||
71.1% fat, 11.4% protein, and 8.4% carbohydrates.^®^
|
||
Description — Buttressed dioecious trees to 20 m tall, 40 cm DBH, leaves alternate,
|
||
compound, with 5 to 7 leaflets each 10 to 20 cm long; inflorescences and axillary terminal,
|
||
many-flowered, flowers yellowish, fragrant, ca.l cm long; fruits ellipsoid to oblong, 3 to
|
||
7 cm long, with thin, oily pulp, greenish, turning black when ripe; seed solitary, triangular
|
||
in cross-section with pointed ends, thin, hard shell and a single large kernel.
|
||
Germplasm — Reported from the Philippine Center of Diversity, the pili nut, or cvs
|
||
thereof, is reported to tolerate slope and strong winds. Campbell says no cultivars are
|
||
described,^ but Menninger says 75 kinds grow in enormous quantities from Africa through
|
||
India to northern Australia, Malaya, and in the Pacific Islands. Menninger may mean the
|
||
genus rather than the species.
|
||
Distribution — Endemic to the primary forests of Luzon at low and medium altitudes
|
||
in the Philippines; widely distributed, yet little-known.^ Introduced successfully into El
|
||
Zamorano and Lancetilla, Honduras.
|
||
Ecology — Estimated to range from Subtropical Moist to Rain through Tropical Moist
|
||
to Wet Forest Life Zones, pili nut is estimated to tolerate annual precipitation of 20 to 80
|
||
dm, annual temperature of 23 to 28°C, and pH of 5.0 to 7.0. Best adapted to the hot, wet,
|
||
tropics.
|
||
Cultivation — Generally grown from seed; superior selections may be grafted. It can be
|
||
marcotted and budded as well. In the Philippines, it is often planted between rows of coconut.
|
||
Seedlings, wrapped in banana sheath or bark, are transported carefully to the transplant site
|
||
at the onset of the rainy season. Spacing is generous, 12 to 15 m apart for densities of only
|
||
40 to 50/ha.
|
||
Harvesting — Vegetatively propagated pilis may bear at age 7 to 8. Rosengarten^®^ says
|
||
68 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
female trees start bearing at age 6, but full production is not reached until 12 to 15. From
|
||
seed, it takes 7 to 10 years to fruiting, 12 to 13 according to Garcia.*®^ Fruits are usually
|
||
shaken or knocked from the tree. Fresh nuts do not store well, becoming rancid in weeks,
|
||
if not roasted. Abarquez* states, “ Integrating resin tapping with nut production, that is, the
|
||
possibility of getting 2 products without disabling the tree, can be studied. As practiced, it
|
||
is observed that flogging, girdling, or wounding the bark of trees on the lower trunk part
|
||
usually increase the production of fruits in some trees like mango . . . Controlling the
|
||
downward translocation of carbohydrates and other hormones from the canopy to the root
|
||
system, by wounding the bark on the trunk, would induce the production of flower hormones,
|
||
and consequently, fruits. Timing the tapping activities so that it complements with the natural
|
||
budding and fruiting season would give us the desired result.”
|
||
Yields and economics — Sometimes trees may yield as much as 33 kg nuts. Garcia*®^
|
||
puts peak yield at 2.5 MT/ha/yr. Other species can yield nearly 50 kg resin per year. Manila
|
||
exported more than 1000 MT as long ago as 1913. But Abarquez^ shows only a little more
|
||
than a ton around 1975. In 1950, the Philippines had more than 8,000 ha planted to pili,
|
||
reduced to ca. 2,500 by the end of 1976.
|
||
Energy — If the seeds were copiously produced, their 75% oil could be viewed as an
|
||
oil source. Other species of Canarium exude valuable resins “ which could be a promising
|
||
alternative for the oil industry.Such species are said to average 45 kg resin per year.
|
||
But Roecklein and Leung^^^ put yields of C. luzonicum resin at only 4 to 5 kg/yr. The shells
|
||
of the nuts are said to be an excellent fuel, a handful enough to cook a simple dish. Garcia^®^
|
||
describes the wood of the pili as an excellent firewood.
|
||
Biotic factors — Campbell^ states that pests and diseases have not been described.
|
||
69
|
||
CARYA ILLINOENSIS (Wangenh.) K. Koch (JUGLANDACEAE) — Pecan
|
||
Syn.: Caryapecan (Marsh.) Engl, and Graebn., Carya oliviformis Nutt., and Hicoria
|
||
pecan Britt.
|
||
Uses — Kernels of nuts eaten raw, roasted, or salted and used in candies, confections,
|
||
ice cream, mixed nuts, and for flavoring in baking and cookery. Pecan oil, expressed from
|
||
kernels, is edible and sold for the drug, essential oil, and cosmetic trade. Lumber is hard,
|
||
brittle, not strong, but is occasionally used for agricultural implements, wagons, and for
|
||
fuel.^^® More recently, pecan timber has been used for veneer and lumber, flooring, and
|
||
still for firewood. Smith^*® notes that “ the pecan has great possibilities as a shade (and
|
||
timber) tree in a large area where it cannot be a commençai dependence, but may produce
|
||
an occasional crop.” Doubtless, the deep-rooted pecan can contribute to erosion control.
|
||
To quote S m i t h , “During the regime of the tribal leaders in the old Seminole Nation in
|
||
Seminole County, Oklahoma, they had a law that fined a person five dollars or more for
|
||
mutilating a pecan tree. Yet some people call the Indian a savage. Whoever calls the Indian
|
||
a savage should go look at the gullies we white men have made in Oklahoma where the
|
||
Indian made none!"' Southerners are intercropping pecans with cattle successfully. Pecan
|
||
has been described as the number three hardwood in the U.S., behind walnut and black
|
||
cherry.
|
||
Folk medicine — Reported to be astringent, pecan is a folk remedy for blood ailments,
|
||
dyspepsia, fever, flu, hepatitis, leucorrhea, malaria, and stomach-ache.^^
|
||
Chemistry — Per 100 g, the seed (ZMB) is reported to contain 711 to 718 calories, 9.5
|
||
to 9.7 g protein, 73.7 to 75.3 g fat, 13.4 to 15.1 g total carbohydrate, 2.3 to 2.4 g fiber,
|
||
1.6 to 1.7 g ash, 75 to 76 mg Ca, 299 to 334 mg P, 2.5 mg Fe, 0 to 3 mg Na, 624 to 1499
|
||
mg K, 20 to 82 jxg beta-carotene equivalent, 0.74 to 0.89 mg thiamine, 0.11 to 0.13 mg
|
||
riboflavin, 0.93 mg niacin, and 2.1 mg ascorbic acid. Leaves and leaf stalks contain a
|
||
phytosterol similar to squalene, capric-, lauric-, myristic-, palmitic-, stearic-, arachidic-,
|
||
oleic-, linoleic-, and linolenic-acids. Tannins containing phloroglucin and catechin have
|
||
been identified; also inositol and 3,4-dihydroxybenzoic acid. The bark contains azaleatin
|
||
(quercetin-5-methyl ether) (Ci6Hi207*H20), and caryatin (quercetin-3,5-dimethylether)
|
||
70 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
(C,7H,407).'^^ According to Hilditch and Williams,'^* the component acids of the seed fats
|
||
are 3.3 to 7% palmitic-, 1 to 5.5% stearic-, 51 to 88% oleic-, 14 to 38% linoleic-, and I
|
||
to 2% linolenic-acids.
|
||
Toxicity — Langhans, Hedin, and Graves'^^ report that leaves and fruits contain juglone,
|
||
a substance toxic to Fusicladium effusum at concentrations as low as 0.1 mg/m€ (roughly
|
||
0.1 ppm). They also report linalool as fungitoxic. Schroeder and Storey^^^ report aflatoxins
|
||
in pecans with sound shells. The mycotoxin zearalenone was extracted from kernels with
|
||
sound shells after 28 days. For reasons unclear to this author, Hager’s Handbook*®^ calls it
|
||
a poisonous plant. The pollen is allergenic.
|
||
Description — Deciduous tree, 33 to 60 m tall, with massive trunk to 3.5 m in diameter,
|
||
buttressed at base, crown round-topped; bark light-brown tinged red, twigs with loose pale-
|
||
reddish tomentum, becoming glabrous or puberulent, lenticels numerous, oblong, and orange;
|
||
leaves compound, 30 to 50 cm long, petioles glabrous or pubescent; leaflets lanceolate to
|
||
oblong-lanceolate, more-or-less falcate, long-pointed, doubly serrate, 10 to 20 cm long, 2.5
|
||
to 7.5 cm broad, veins conspicuous; staminate flowers in slender clustered aments 7.5 to
|
||
12.5 cm long, from axillary buds of previous year’s growth, sessile or nearly so, yellow-
|
||
green, hirsute on outer surface, bract oblong, narrowed at ends, slightly 4-angled, with
|
||
yellow pubescence; fruits in clusters of 3 to 11, pointed at apex, rounded at base, 4-winged
|
||
and angled, 1.5 to 6.5 cm long, up to 2.5 cm in diameter, dark-brown, with yellow scales;
|
||
husk splitting at maturity to nearly the base, often persistent on tree after nut fallen out; nut
|
||
ovoid to ellipsoidal, rather cylindrical toward apex, rounded at base, reddish-brown with
|
||
irregular black markings; shell thin with papery partitions; seed sweet, red-brown, kernel
|
||
separating rather readily. Flowers early spring; fruits fall.^^®
|
||
Germplasm — Reported from the North American Center of Diversity, pecan, or cvs
|
||
thereof, is reported to tolerate high pH, mycobacteria, salt, slope, smog, and weeds.Many
|
||
selected cvs have been made, some of the “ paper-shell” or “ thin-shell” cvs include: ‘Curtis’,
|
||
‘Frotscher’, ‘Moneymaker’, ‘Pabst’, ‘Schley’, and ‘Stuart’. (2n = 32.)^^^
|
||
Distribution — Native to the valley of the Mississippi River from southern Indiana and
|
||
Illinois, western Kentucky and Tennessee, to Mississippi and Louisiana, west to Texas;
|
||
reappearing in mountains of northern Mexico. Largely cultivated in southeastern U.S., most
|
||
abundant and of its largest size in southern Arkansas and eastern Texas. Improved cvs are
|
||
widely cultivated.
|
||
Ecology — Ranging from Warm Temperate Thom to Moist through Subtropical Dry to
|
||
Moist Forest Life Zones, pecan is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 3 to 13 dm
|
||
(mean of 11 cases = 8.7), annual temperature of 9 to 21 °C (mean of 11 cases = 16.5),
|
||
and pH of 5.0 to 8.2 (mean of 9 cases = 6.4). Low rich ground along streams is favorite
|
||
habitat, especially in fertile soil, rich in humus, on land that has been under cultivation for
|
||
many years. Quite hardy in the north, it has been successfully planted up to the 43rd parallel.
|
||
While favored by alluvial soils, pecan is by no means restricted thereto.^*® Thrives on a
|
||
variety of soils, from sandy soils of acid reaction to heavy soil with alkaline reaction, and
|
||
gradations between these. All soils should be well-drained and pervious to water. Pecan is
|
||
deep-rooted and requires plenty of water, but will not tolerate water-logged soils.Relative
|
||
humidity above 80% prevents effective pollination. Pecans require 150 to 210 frost-free
|
||
days, but have not fared well in the tropics. Madden, Brison, and McDanieP^^ suggest a
|
||
possible chill requirement of 750 hr below 45°F (7°C). Hardy to Zone 5.^"^^
|
||
Cultivation — Pecans do not come true from seeds and are difficult to start from cuttings.
|
||
Therefore, propagation is mainly by budding and grafting, in order to perpetuate desirable
|
||
varieties. After soil with the proper requirements for pecan production has been selected,
|
||
young trees are set on 11-m squares; in Texas, squares up to 23 m may be used, especially
|
||
on river valley soils. In some areas 75 to 1(X) cm annual rainfall may be sufficient, but
|
||
usually much more is required. Where the rainfall is abundant, growth of trees is rapid and
|
||
71
|
||
crowding may be a problem. Trees usually do not begin bearing as early in humid areas
|
||
because of greater rate of growth. In western pecan orchards, trees are used in the manner
|
||
of interplanted fruit trees since the trees do not grow so fast and cvs may be selected that
|
||
are prolific at a relatively young age and size. Western cvs apparently lend themselves to
|
||
dwarfing by pruning, and can be kept relatively small, preventing crowding. Unlike most
|
||
trees, pecans do not show a deficiency of moisture by wilting of leaves or shoots. This may
|
||
be due to the deep taproot which absorbs sufficient moisture from the subsoil to prevent
|
||
wilting, but when weeds and other plants growing near pecan trees show signs of water
|
||
deficiency, water should be applied. Trees are often intercropped with cotton, com, or
|
||
peaches until trees come into bearing. Planting of trees originally varies from 11 to 33 m,
|
||
but after a first thinning in 12 to 15 years and a second at the end of 20 to 25 years, trees
|
||
will be spaced 23 to 66 m apart. Nursery trees usually planted in commercial orchards when
|
||
rootstocks are 4 to 6 years old and budded or grafted trees are 1 or 2 years old, although
|
||
older trees are used sometimes. Pecan trees are set in both large and small holes. In heavy
|
||
soils, holes about 1 m in diameter at top give better results. In lighter soils, post-holes have
|
||
proven satisfactory. For larger trees, larger holes should be used to accomodate the larger
|
||
root systems. Trees should be planted about 5 cm deeper than they were in the nursery.
|
||
After they are set, tops should be cut back and the trunks loosely wrapped for a distance
|
||
of 30 to 45 cm from ground with burlap of heavy paper, which is tied loosely. Pecan trees
|
||
are very slow to develop new roots after transplanting and should be supplied with adequate
|
||
moisture during the first summer to help establish the root system. Young trees must be
|
||
protected from sunscald and winter injury. Pmning and training trees to proper shape is
|
||
essential. Young pecan orchards require more frequent cultivation than older orchards,
|
||
because older trees tend to hold weed growth in check by shading and by competition for
|
||
moisture and nutrients. Disking or plowing should be frequent enough to prevent rank growth
|
||
of weeds or grass, the number of cultivations depending on the fertility of the soil. If an
|
||
orchard is on land subject to overflow and bad erosion, it may be sodded with some suitable
|
||
grass; during the growing season, it may be mowed, or sheep and cattle may be allowed to
|
||
graze the land to keep down the vegetation. Where soils are poor, intercropping with legumes
|
||
and adding fertilizer may be useful.
|
||
Harvesting — Pecan nuts are harvested when fully ripe and coming out of hulls with
|
||
little beating of branches. From bloom to harvest varies from 5 to 6 months. Frequently,
|
||
the harvest of nuts is facilitated by the use of sheets spread under trees beyond the spread
|
||
of branches. Such sheets are usually made of heavy cotton sheeting in rectangular pieces
|
||
ca. 5 X 10 m. Nuts are stored in bags or bins after being cured on trays with hardware
|
||
cloth bottoms. They trays are placed across supports to allow air circulation. Nuts may also
|
||
be cured in small burlap bags, provided the bags are arranged so air circulates freely around
|
||
them. Bags should be turned upside-down occasionally to insure more uniform curing. Much
|
||
of the work of curing can be eliminated if nuts are allowed to cure in husk before harvesting.
|
||
Nuts may be stored 2 years without appreciable deterioration, if stored at a temperature of
|
||
0°C to 3.5°C. They should be stored as soon as curing is completed, since their quality is
|
||
impaired at ordinary temperatures, long before rancidity is apparent.
|
||
Yields and economics — Trees 8 to 10 years old yield from 2 to 12 (to 350) kg per tree.
|
||
Improved cvs often yield greater amounts. Trees yielding 1500 to 1600 nuts per tree may
|
||
have yields of 1,000 to 1,200 kg/ha. As Rosengarten^®^ notes, most edible nuts are essentially
|
||
one-state crops: almonds, pistachios, and walnuts are produced in California; filberts in
|
||
Oregon, and macadamia nuts in Hawaii. The pecan, on the other hand, is a multi-state crop,
|
||
stretching across the country from the Southeast to the Southwest throughout some 20 states.
|
||
U.S. production is tabulated in Table 1. By 1981, a record harvest of nearly 175,000 tons
|
||
was reported.
|
||
Energy — Even native pecans (up to 75% oil) are estimated to yield 750 to 800 kg/ha
|
||
72 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
Table 1
|
||
UTILIZED PECAN PRODUCTION TONS
|
||
(ap p rox.)
|
||
1978 1979 1980
|
||
Alabama 11,000 2,000 10,000
|
||
Arkansas 1,600 750 450
|
||
Florida 2,100 1,300 3,000
|
||
Georgia 67,500 32,500 52,500
|
||
Louisiana 4,500 8,000 7,000
|
||
Mississippi 5,000 1,250 2,250
|
||
New Mexico 7,500 7,350 7,350
|
||
North Carolina 2,000 650 850
|
||
Oklahoma 7,750 5,000 1,750
|
||
South Carolina 3,000 1,000 1,100
|
||
Texas 13,000 45,500 5,500
|
||
Total U.S. Production 124,950 105,300 91,750
|
||
After Rosengarten, Jr., F. The Book of Edible Nuts, Walker and
|
||
Company, New York, 1984, 384.
|
||
in T e x a s .Cultiváis may exceed 1000 kg. Prunings and thinnings make very good fuel
|
||
wood. Perhaps even the leaves could be investigated as sources of lauric acid, juglone
|
||
(herbicide), leaf protein, with the residues going into ethanol production.
|
||
Biotic factors — Squirrels may destroy large quantities of nuts during the season, since
|
||
they start feeding on them while the nuts are immature and continue until the nuts are
|
||
harvested. They also gnaw the bark off new shoots so that they die. Squirrel guards on trees
|
||
may effectively control squirrel damage. Because pecan trees are not sufficiently self-
|
||
pollinating, various cvs should be interplanted. Orchards should be laid out and cvs planted
|
||
to allow pollination to occur in the direction of prevailing wind. Although the pollinating
|
||
CVS need be only about 100 m from female trees, they are often alternated with each other.
|
||
Phillips et al.^^^ give an interesting illustrated account of the insects and diseases of the
|
||
pecans. The following are known to cause diseases of pecans: A grobacterium tum efaciens,
|
||
A rticularía quercina, A spergillus chevalieri, B otryosphaeria bergeneriana, B. ribis, C ar-
|
||
yospora m inor, C ephaleuros virescens, C ercospora fusca, C ladosporium effusum, Conio-
|
||
thyrium caryogenum , E lsinoe randii, Eutypa heteracantha, G lom erella cingulata, G nom onia
|
||
caryar, G. dispora, G. nerviseda, H elicobasidium purpureum , M icrocera coccophila, M i-
|
||
crosphaera alni. M icrostrom a ju glan dis, M ycosphaerella caryigena, M . dendroides, M y-
|
||
riangium duriaei, M . tuberculans, N em atospora coryli, P ellicu laria koleroga, P estalotia
|
||
uvicola, P h yllosticta convexula, Phym atotrichum om nivorum , P h ysalospora fu sca, P. rhod-
|
||
ina, P hytophthora cactorum , Schizophyllum com mune, Septoria caryae, and Trichothecium
|
||
roseum.'^'^^^'^''^ Pecan is attacked by the parasitic flowering plant, mistletoe, P horadendron
|
||
serrulata. Insect pests attacking pecan include: M yzocallisfum ipennellus (black pecan aphid),
|
||
C hrysom phalus obscurus (obscure scale), C urculio varyae (pecan weevil), H yphantria cunea
|
||
(fall webworm), Synanthedon scitulae (pecan borer), A crobasis caryae (pecan nut-case
|
||
borer), A crobasis p a llio lella (pecan leaf-case borer), L aspeyresia caryana (hickory shuck
|
||
worm), C oleoph orae caryaefoliella (pecan cigar-case borer), G retchena bolliana (pecan bud
|
||
moth). P hylloxera devastatrix (leaf and stem galls), Strym on m elinus (cotton square borer).
|
||
Nematodes isolated from pecan trees include: Caconem a radidicola, D itylenchus interm e
|
||
dins, D olichodoru s heterocephalus, H eterodera m arioni, M eloidogyne spp., P ratylenchus
|
||
penetrans, R adopholus sim ilis, and Xiphinem a americanum^'^^^
|
||
73
|
||
CARYOCAR AMYGDALIFERUM Mutis (CARYOCARACEAE) Mani, Achotillo, Cagui,
|
||
Chalmagra
|
||
Uses — Fruits edible, said to taste like almonds. Pulp of fruit is also used as a fish poison.
|
||
According to the NAS,^^^ Caryocar kernels are said to be the best edible nuts in the tropics.
|
||
Oil used for cooking in tropical America.
|
||
Folk medicine — Fruits are used as a medicine for leprosy.
|
||
Chemistry — Wood, possibly of this species, possibly of C. brasiliense, contains 1.5
|
||
to 1.8% essential oil.
|
||
Description — Trees to 55.0 m tall, the trunk buttressed up to 3.0 m, the young branches
|
||
sparsely puberulous-glabrescent. Leaves trifoliolate; petioles 2.5 to 11.0 cm long, glabres-
|
||
cent, terete; leaflets shortly petiolulate, the terminal petiolule 5.0 to 7.0 mm long, the lateral
|
||
petiolules slightly shorter than the terminal one, the petiolules sparsely puberulous, shallowly
|
||
canaliculate; the laminas elliptic to oblong, slightly asymmetrical, acuminate at apex, the
|
||
acumen 1.0 to 1.5 cm long, cuneate to subcuneate and often markedly unequal at base,
|
||
unevenly coarsely serrate at margins, glabrous on both surfaces, the terminal lamina 7.5 to
|
||
12.0 cm long, 2.5 to 5.5 cm broad, the lateral laminas slightly smaller than the terminal
|
||
one; primary veins 10 to 11 pairs, plane to prominulous beneath; venation prominulous
|
||
beneath; stipels to 5.0 mm long, ellipsoid, inflated, persistent. Peduncles ca. 3.5 to 7.0 cm
|
||
long, glabrous. Inflorescences clustered racemes, the rachis tomentose, the pedicels elongate,
|
||
ebracteolate. Calyx cupuliform, ca. 6.0 mm long, glabrous on exterior, the lobes 5, small,
|
||
rounded, the margins ciliate. Corolla lobes 5, ca. 2.0 to 2.5 cm long, oblong, glabrous,
|
||
greenish-yellow. Stamens numerous, ca. 200, the filaments shortly united at base in a ring,
|
||
but into groups, white, sparsely pubescent, the apical portion tuberculate, the innermost
|
||
filaments much shorter than the rest, the anthers small. Ovary globose, glabrous on exterior,
|
||
4-locular. Styles 4, filamentous, shorter than filaments. Fruit globose-ellipsoid, ca. 5.5 cm
|
||
long, exocarp glabrous, smooth; pericarp thick, fleshy; mesocarp and endocarp enveloping
|
||
the seed to form an ovoid stone; the exterior of mesocarp not seen, the interior enveloping
|
||
the endocarp tubercules; endocarp with numerous flattened tubercules ca. 5.0 mm long, and
|
||
a hard woody interior ca. 1.0 mm thick, glabrous within.
|
||
Germplasm — From the South American Center of Diversity, achotillo has been reported
|
||
to tolerate acid soils.Regrettably, this has been confused in the literature, due to ortho
|
||
graphic similarities, with Peruvian C. amygdaliforme Don. (almendro blanco). The mani
|
||
has inflated stipels to 5 mm long, the Peruvian species lacks stipels.
|
||
Distribution — Native to the forests of the Magdalena River Valley of Colombia.
|
||
Sturtevant^^^ assigns it to Ecuador and says it is the “ almendrón” of Mariquita.
|
||
Ecology — Tropical forest tree, thriving in rich loam in river valleys.Duke®^ reports
|
||
the species from Tropical Moist to Wet Forest Life Zones, annual precipitation of 23 to 40
|
||
dm, annual temperature of 23 to 27°C, and pH of 5.0 to 5.3.
|
||
Cultivation — Not known in cultivation.^^®
|
||
Harvesting — Fruits collected in season for food and medicinal purposes by natives.
|
||
Yields and economics — Of limited use by natives in Colombia.
|
||
Energy — Like other tropical tree species, this one probably can produce 25 MT biomass
|
||
per year. Prunings could be used for energy production.
|
||
Biotic factors — No serious pests or diseases reported for this tree.^^® Probably bat
|
||
pollinated.
|
||
74 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
CARYOCAR NUCIFERUM L. (CARYOCARACEAE) — Suari Nut, Butternut
|
||
Uses — This is probably one of the most popular edible nuts in the genus Caryocar.
|
||
Without voucher material, we can only guess to which species the various data refer. After
|
||
reading Prance and da Silva’s excellent monograph,this author has done his best. Certainly
|
||
this is the largest, if not the oiliest and tastiest, of the nuts in the genus. The timber of the
|
||
roots is used for making crooks in boats and for canoes.
|
||
Folk medicine — The bark of this or one of the species confused with this is considered
|
||
diuretic and febrifuge.
|
||
Chemistry — Apparently all the species have a high oil content in the pericarp and kernel.
|
||
The pericarp oil is suggestive of palm oil.‘^^
|
||
Description — Large tree to 45.0 m tall, young branches glabrous. Leaves trifoliolate,
|
||
petioles 4.0 to 9.0 (to 15.0) cm long, terete to flattened, glabrous; leaflets petiolulate,
|
||
terminal petiolule 7.0 to 20.0 mm long, lateral petiolules about equal to the center one;
|
||
petiolules glabrous, shallowly canaliculate; laminas elliptic, acuminate at apex, acumen 5.0
|
||
to 15.0 mm long, entire to weakly crenate at margins, rounded to subcuneate at base,
|
||
glabrous on both surfaces, terminal lamina 12.0 to 30.0 cm long, 6.0 to 18.0 cm broad,
|
||
lateral laminas equal or slightly smaller than terminal one, primary veins 8 to 13 pairs, plane
|
||
above, prominent beneath; venation prominulous beneath; stipels absent. Peduncles 6.0 to
|
||
10.0 cm long, glabrous, sparsely lenticellate towards base. Inflorescences of clustered ra
|
||
cemes, rachis 1.0 to 4.5 cm long, glabrous; flowering pedicels 4.0 to 6.0 cm long, 5.0 to
|
||
8.0 cm thick, glabrous, ebracteolate. Calyx campanulate, ca. 2.0 cm long, glabrous on
|
||
exterior, lobes 5, rounded. Corolla ca. 6.0 to 7.0 cm long, elliptic, glabrous, deep-red on
|
||
exterior, paler within. Stamens extremely numerous, over 700, filaments caducous as a unit,
|
||
united at base up to 2.0 mm, dividing into fused groups before becoming free above, outer
|
||
ones 7.0 to 8.5 cm long including base, yellow, apical portion tuberculate, with many shorter
|
||
inner filaments from 3.5 cm long and of all intermediate sizes, inner filaments tuberculate
|
||
at apex only, anthers small. Ovary globose, 4-locular, glabrous on exterior. Styles 4, fila
|
||
mentous, 8.0 to 9.0 cm long, glabrous. Fruit subglobose to sublobate, to 15.0 cm long,
|
||
exocarp glabrous, lenticellate; pericarp very thick and fleshy, detaching from mesocarp and
|
||
endocarp; mesocarp and endocarp enveloping seed to form a large stone ca. 7.0 cm broad,
|
||
5.0 cm long, mesocarp becoming lignified and hard, the exterior undulate with short, rounded
|
||
tubercules; endocarp with tuberculate exterior and hard, thin, woody interior ca. 1.0 mm
|
||
thick; with 1 to 2 subreniform seeds only developing.
|
||
Germplasm — Reported from the South American Center of Diversity. The tuberculate
|
||
large fruits and large flowers are larger than those of any other Caryocar.
|
||
Distribution — Native of the primary forests of the Guianas and adjacent Venezuela and
|
||
Brazil. Recently collected in Panama and Choco, Colombia. Apparently abundant in Choco.
|
||
Cultivated in the West Indies, and grown in botanical gardens in Nigeria, Singapore, and
|
||
Sri Lanka.
|
||
Ecology — According to MacMillan, the tree grows well in the moist low country of
|
||
Sri Lanka, especially in rich deep loams or alluvial soils.
|
||
Cultivation and Energy — No data available.
|
||
Harvesting — According to Burkill,^^ it may fruit at 5 years of age, but usually takes 2
|
||
to 3 times as long. Introduced into Singapore in 1899, it did not fruit until 20 years old,
|
||
but flowered years before. At Peradeniya and Henaratgoda, where it was introduced in 1891,
|
||
the trees had not fruited when MacMillan‘S^ went to press, though the Peradeniya specimen
|
||
started flowering after 19 years. These do not seem to be much more precocious than Brazil
|
||
nuts. However, MacMillan mentions another specimen from British Guiana which fruited
|
||
6 years from planting.
|
||
Yields and economics — The nut is exported commercially from the Guianas.
|
||
Biotic factors — Probably bat pollinated.
|
||
75
|
||
CARYOCAR VILLOSUM (Aubl.) Pers., CARYO CAR BRASILIENSE Camb., and CARY-
|
||
OCAR C O R IA C E U M Wittmack (CARYOCARACEAE) — Pequi
|
||
Uses — Several species go under the common name pequi and pequia, said to be one of
|
||
the best edible nuts in the tropics. But Sturtevant^^^ calls it is a sort of chestnut eaten in
|
||
times of famine. C a ryo ca r has several nut-bearing species. These are somewhat more prom
|
||
ising because some species are smaller and easier to harvest. The orange-sized fruit contains
|
||
an oily pulp and kernel that are used for food. So far, they have been employed only in
|
||
home cooking. The fruit is made into a tasty liqueur, well known in Brazil, especially in
|
||
the State of Mato Grosso. There is both the fruit oil and the kernel oil. After refining the
|
||
taxonomy of those species called Pequi and Pequia, Prance and da Silva^^ state that the
|
||
fruit of C. villosum (a huge tree) has an edible pulp and edible cotyledons. The pulp is most
|
||
often eaten and has a faint smell of rancid butter. It is also used to produce an edible oil.
|
||
Wood of C. villosum is so durable as to be used in boat-building and in heavy construction.
|
||
Brazilian Indians obtain a yellow dye from C. brasiliense.^^
|
||
Folk medicine — The bark of this or one of the species confused with this is considered
|
||
diuretic and febrifuge.^*
|
||
Chemistry — According to Hager’s Handbook,the wood of C. brasilien se (or C.
|
||
am ygdaliferum or C. glabrum ) contains 1.5 to 1.8% essential oil. According to a report
|
||
quoted in Burkill,^^ the inner part of the fruit-wall contains a reddish-orange oil, up to 72.3%.
|
||
The kernel contains 61.4% (ZMB) or 45% (APB) oil, composed largely of glyceride esters
|
||
76 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
of palmitic and oleic acids. Ripe fruits must be treated as soon as harvested, or enzymes
|
||
will induce the development of free fatty acids. Lane'^^ reported a comparison with Malayan
|
||
palm oil:
|
||
Palm oil (%) Pequi pericarp I Pequi kernel (%)
|
||
Myristic 1.5
|
||
2.5 1.5
|
||
48.4
|
||
Palmitic 40.8 41.2
|
||
Stearic 3.6 0.8 0.9
|
||
Oleic 45.2 53.9 46.0
|
||
Linoleic 7.9 2.6 3.3
|
||
Hilditch and Williams'^^ present somewhat different data. The fruit-coat fat of Caryocar
|
||
villosum is interesting, because its fatty acids closely resemble those of palm oils, namely:
|
||
myristic 1.8, palmitic 47.3, stearic 1.7, oleic 47.3, linoleic 1.9%. It contained only 2% of
|
||
fully saturated components (tripalmitin), thus differing somewhat from palm oils of similar
|
||
fatty acid composition. No tristearin was detected in the completely hydrogenated fat and
|
||
the components of the fat (in addition to 2% tripalmitin) were therefore 42% oleodipalmitins
|
||
and 56% palmitodioleins — an instance of pronounced “ even distribution.” Intensive crys
|
||
tallization of the pequia fruit-coat fat yielded five fractions very rich in oleodisaturated
|
||
glycerides and three more soluble fractions which consisted largely of diunsaturated gly
|
||
cerides. Oleodipalmitin was isolated separately from each of the five fractions and agreed
|
||
in its transition and melting-points with 2-oleodipalmitin, while the hydrogenated products
|
||
in each case were 2-stearodipalmitin. The symmetrical form of oleodipalmitin was thus
|
||
exclusively present. Similar examination of the palmitodistearins obtained by hydrogenation
|
||
of the palmitodioleins in the three more soluble fractions showed, in contrast, that the latter
|
||
were present in both the symmetrical and the unsymmetrical configuration, the amounts of
|
||
each positional isomeride being probably of the same order.
|
||
Description — Large tree to 40.0 m tall and up to 2.5 m diameter, the young branches
|
||
villous-tomentose, becoming glabrous with age. Leaves trifoliolate; petioles 4.0 to 15.0 cm
|
||
long, villous-tomentose to puberulous, terete to slightly striate; leaflets shortly petiolulate,
|
||
the terminal petiolule 3.0 to 6.0 mm long, the lateral petiolules 2.0 to 4.0 mm long; petiolules
|
||
puberulous when young, canaliculate; the laminas elliptic, acuminate at apex, the acumen
|
||
3.0 to 10.0 mm long, serrate to crenate at margins, rounded to cordate at base, villous to
|
||
glabrous above, densely villous-hirsute or with a sparse pubescence on the venation only
|
||
beneath, the terminal lamina 8.0 to 11.0 cm long, 6.0 to 12.0 cm broad, the lateral laminas
|
||
slightly smaller; primary veins 12 to 19 pairs, slightly impressed or plane above, prominent
|
||
beneath; venation extremely prominent beneath; stipels absent. Peduncles 5.0 to 13.0 cm
|
||
long, tomentellous or puberulous when young, glabrescent, lenticellate. Inflorescences of
|
||
clustered racemes, the rachis 3.0 to 4.0 cm long, tomentose when young; flowering pedicels
|
||
1.8 to 3.5 cm long, puberulous to glabrous, with 2 membraneous subpersistent bracteoles.
|
||
Calyx campanulate-cupuliform, ca. 1.5 cm long, gray puberulous to glabrous on exterior,
|
||
the lobes 5, rounded. Corolla ca. 2.5 cm long, the lobes 5, oblong-elliptic, pale yellow.
|
||
Stamens numerous, ca. 300, the filaments shortly united into a ring at base but not into
|
||
groups, subpersistent, of two distinct lengths with several of intermediate lengths, the longest
|
||
ca. 6.5 to 7.0 cm long, yellow, the apical 1.0 to 3.0 mm tuberculate, the shortest ca. 55,
|
||
1.0 to 1.5 cm long, with distinct fused portion at base, tuberculate entire length, the anthers
|
||
small. Ovary globose, 4-locular, glabrous on exterior. Styles 4, filamentous, equalling
|
||
filaments, glabrous. Fruit oblong-globose, 6.0 to 7.0 cm long, 7.0 to 8.0 cm broad; exocarp
|
||
glabrous, lenticellate; pericarp thick, fleshy, detaching from mesocarp and endocarp; me-
|
||
socarp and endocarp enveloping seed to form a reniform stone ca. 5.0 cm broad, the exterior
|
||
of mesocarp smooth and undulate, the interior enveloping endocarp spines; endocarp with
|
||
numerous fine spines ca. 3.0 mm long, and a hard wood interior, ca. 1.0 mm thick.
|
||
77
|
||
Germplasm — Reported from the South American Center of Diversity, the pequi is
|
||
sensitive to wind damage. Prance and da Silva^^ key C. villosum with acuminate leaflets,
|
||
C. brasilien se as with rounded or acute leaflets. C. coriaceum is also found in the complex
|
||
known to Brazilians as Pequi.
|
||
Distribution — French Guiana and Amazonian Brazil (C. villosum ). Dry woodland of
|
||
the northern and eastern part of the Planalto of central Brazil (C. coriaceum ). Brazil and
|
||
adjacent Bolivia and Paraguay (C. brasilien se). Cultivated in Singapore and Sumatra (C.
|
||
villosum ).
|
||
Ecology — Grows above flood level in the Amazon valley (Burkill, C. villosum ).
|
||
Cultivation — Wickhan, in Lane,*^'* figured the trees should be spaced at 100 trees per
|
||
ha.
|
||
Harvesting — Trees have grown to 18 m in 9 years.
|
||
Yields and economics — I quote exactly from Wickhan’s letter, as quoted by Lane:*^"^
|
||
“ Reckoning the fruit as giving some 3/4 lb. of fat, the yield per acre should be from 1300
|
||
lbs. to 1/2 tons, it will therefore be at once apparent that this greatly exceeds any existing
|
||
source of supply — coconut (copra), palm kernels, etc...”
|
||
Energy — The husk of the fruit is used, like coconut husks, for fuel, either directly or
|
||
after conversion to charcoal. Prunings could also be used for fuel.
|
||
Biotic factors — C aryocar villosum is bat pollinated, with two or three of the many
|
||
flowers in a given influorescence opening at night, shortly after dark. The pollination process
|
||
is described in Prance and da Silva.
|
||
78 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
CARYODENDRON ORINOCENSE Karst. (EUPHORBIACEAE) — Inche, Cacay, Nambi,
|
||
Arbol de Nuez, Kakari Taccy Nut
|
||
Uses — According to Garcia-Barriga,‘°^ the oil is used like olive oil, while the toasted
|
||
seed is very flavorful and nutritious. According to Schultes,the oil is valued for a wide
|
||
range of uses, from cooking to soap-making and cosmetics. The thin, brown shell surrounding
|
||
the kernel, is easily broken with the fingers.The tree has been suggested as a plantation
|
||
crop for Latin America.*®^
|
||
Folk medicine — In the Llanos of Colombia, the oil is painted onto skin afflictions. A
|
||
half-ounce dose is taken as a laxative. It is believed to fortify the lungs.
|
||
Chemistry — Seeds contain ca. 50% of a yellowish oil, the husk 17.1%, the pulp 82.9%.
|
||
The pulp contains 6.6% water.
|
||
Description — Tree to 20 m tall, the crown conical; trunk yellowish-ochraceous, striate,
|
||
with a watery pinkish-yellow latex. Leaves alternate, glabrous, narrowly elliptic or obovate,
|
||
the margins entire, revolute, 12 to 25 cm long, 4 to 10 cm wide, apically acute, basally
|
||
cuneate; primary veins ca. 7 to 11; biglandular at the base of the blade. Petiole glabrous,
|
||
canaliculate above, dilated at both ends, 1 to 5.5 cm long. Flowers unisexual, the male in
|
||
terminal racemes, with 3 concave tepals, 4 conical glabrous stamens, longidehiscent; disk
|
||
white. Female flowers with 5 to 6 ovate tepals; ovary trilocular, triovulate, stigma short and
|
||
trilobate, disk annular, trilobate. Fruit globose-oblong, 5 to 6 cm long, 4 to 5 cm broad,
|
||
usually 3-seeded. Seeds 3 cm long, 1.7 cm wide.^°^’^^^
|
||
Germplasm — From the South American Center of Diversity, inche is reported to tolerate
|
||
poor soils in lateritic and savanna situations.
|
||
Distribution — According to PIRB,^^^ the species is native to the Llanos Orientales and
|
||
Putumayo of Colombia. I’m told there are plantations in Ecuador, and I have seen plants,
|
||
apparently thriving, in the humid climate of Talamanca, Costa Rica.
|
||
Ecology — I estimate inche ranges from Tropical Dry to Wet through Subtropical Dry
|
||
to Wet Forest Life Zones, tolerating annual precipitation of 15 to 60 dm, annual temperature
|
||
of 23 to 29°C, and pH of 4.5 to 7.5. Said to be of the tropical humid zone,*°^ ranging from
|
||
300 to 1000 m above sea level,where the drier season lasts at least 4 months.
|
||
Cultivation — Propagated by seed, the tree has been suggested as an oilseed plantation
|
||
crop.
|
||
79
|
||
Harvesting — Said to start bearing in 4 to 5 years. The determinate height of the tree is
|
||
said to facilitate harvest.
|
||
Yields and economics — According to Garcia-Barriga,*®^ each tree produces 280 to 300
|
||
kg of fruit, which at the density of 50 trees per ha would calculate to 15 MT fruit. In round
|
||
figures, 25 fruits would weigh 375 g, or 15 g per fruit. Of that 15 g, there would be about
|
||
8 g husk, 1 g testa, and 6 g of kernel. That 6 g kernel should contain about 2 to 3 g oil.
|
||
This suggests a conversion factor of 20% oil in the fruit. According to PIRB,^^^ the cost of
|
||
establishment and maintenance should be less than that of African Oil Palm. Since the yield
|
||
is similar, possibly inche could return equal or greater profits.
|
||
Energy — If we accept the speculative yield and conversion figures derived above, there
|
||
could be 3 MT oil, half the expected yield of oilpalm. But, if the same yields were obtained
|
||
with 100 trees per hectare instead of 50, there could be as good a yield here as with oil
|
||
palm, with 6 MT oil and possibly 12 MT edible seedcake.
|
||
Biotic factors — No data available.
|
||
80 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
CAST ANEA CRENATA Sieb, and Zucc. (FAGACEAE) — Japanese Chestnut, Juri
|
||
Syn.: Castanea stricta Sieb, and Zucc., Castanea pubinervis (Hassk.) C. K. Schneid.,
|
||
and Castanea japónica Blume.
|
||
Uses — Kernel of nut used as food by Chinese and Japanese, both for humans and for
|
||
fattening sw ine.N ut shell extract, bur, and bark used for staining. Male flower used to
|
||
stain cloth a red-brown color.W ood strong, very hard, heavy, durable in soil, used in
|
||
Japan for furniture, cabinet work, railroad ties, and in ship-building. Planted in southern
|
||
Europe for timber. Well adapted for ornamental planting.
|
||
Folk medicine — In China and Korea, flowers are used for tuberculosis and scrofula.
|
||
Decoction of fresh leaves said to allay skin irritation caused by lacquer. Root used for hernia.
|
||
An ointment for boils made with powdered charcoal from involucres mixed with oil.^"^^
|
||
Chemistry — Per 100 g, the seed (ZMB) is reported to contain 399 calories, 7.0 g protein,
|
||
1.4 g fat, 89.2 g total carbohydrate, 2.3 g fiber, 2.3 g ash, 79.8 mg Ca, 188 mg P, 3.8 mg
|
||
Fe, 37.6 mg Na, 0.89 mg thiamine, 0.42 mg riboflavin, 3.76 mg niacin, and 68.1 mg
|
||
ascorbic acid.®^
|
||
Description — Small tree or shrub, often less than 10 m tall, but occasionally much
|
||
larger, up to 17 m, attaining great girth, with many spreading limbs and slender branches;
|
||
young shoots at first densely gray-white with short hairs, becoming glabrous or sparsely
|
||
velutinous; leaves at first densely stellate pubescent all over, retaining on under-surface
|
||
some pubescence or becoming glabrous, puberulous on veins above, elliptic to oblong-
|
||
lanceolate, or narrowly oblong, with long acuminate tip and cordate or round at base, margin
|
||
crenate-serrate or subentire with 10 to 25 bristle teeth on each side, 8 to 16 cm long, 3 to
|
||
5 cm broad, thick and heavy, quite crinkly, dark lustrous green above, grayish-green beneath;
|
||
petiole pubescent, about 2 cm long, stipules soon deciduous, lanceolate, acuminate, gradually
|
||
broaden at base; winter buds short, ovoid, glabrous, shining crimson; staminate spikes 5 to
|
||
20 cm or more long, densely flowered, yellowish-white, erect or suberect; pistillate flowers
|
||
clustered among the male spikes, occurring in involucres about 5 mm thick, styles exserted,
|
||
about 3 mm long, densely covered with ascending long gray hairs; bur small in wild types,
|
||
in cultivated types often to 6 cm in diameter, with long, almost glabrous spines; nuts 2 to
|
||
3 per bur, hilum occupying whole basal area.^^^
|
||
Germplasm — Reported from the China-Japan Center of Diversity, Japanese chestnut,
|
||
or CVS thereof, is reported to tolerate disease, frost, and slope.Several Japanese varieties
|
||
are grown extensively, as ‘Alpha’, ‘Reliance’, and ‘Parry’, the last being a hybrid with C.
|
||
dentata, suitable for planting in California. Other Japanese varieties include: ‘Advance’,
|
||
‘Beta’, ‘Biddle’, ‘Black’, ‘Col’, ‘Eureka’, ‘Felton’, ‘Hale’, ‘Kent’, ‘Kerr’, ‘Killan’, ‘Mar
|
||
tin’, ‘McFarland’, ‘Prolific’, ‘Success’, and ‘Superb’. ( 2 n = 22,24.)
|
||
Distribution — Native to Japan (Honshu, Shikoku, Kyushu) and Korea. Much planted
|
||
in Japan for the nuts. Introduced and extensively planted in southern Europe for timber.
|
||
Introduced to the U.S. in 1876.^®® Hardy as far north as Massachusetts.^^*
|
||
Ecology — Ranging from Cool Temperate Moist to Rain through Warm Temperate to
|
||
Moist Forest Life Zones, Japanese chestnut is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of
|
||
9.4 to 23.4 dm (mean of 6 cases = 13.3), annual temperature of 9.9 to 15.8°C (mean of
|
||
6 cases = 12.9°C), and pH of 5.0 to 6.8 (mean of 5 cases = 5.9).*^ Trees grow best on
|
||
well-drained, porous soil, with deep porous subsoil. Withstand temperatures and rainfall of
|
||
most temperate climates.Hardy to Zone 6.^^^^
|
||
Cultivation — Trees propagated by whip-grafting to American chestnut (C. dentata).
|
||
American species usually cut down, and the sprouts springing from the remaining roots,
|
||
when 1.3 to 2 cm in diameter, are grafted with desired varieties of Japanese chestnut. Whip
|
||
and cleft methods of grafting are used. Trees already grafted with desired varieties may be
|
||
obtained for the orchard. Seedlings may be top-worked with the permanent kinds after they
|
||
81
|
||
have become established. Trees set out not less than 10 m apart each way. Trees may be
|
||
planted closer at first and thinned out for permanent spacing in 10 to 15 years. Meanwhile,
|
||
trees may be intercropped with vegetables or small tree crops. Two-year old grafts are
|
||
commonly loaded with burs. It is good practice to keep burs picked from young trees for 3
|
||
to 4 years to allow trees to become well-established before crop production is started. If
|
||
trees are allowed to over-bear, nuts run down in size. Japanese varieties do not abort their
|
||
burs, and seem to be completely self-fertile.^^^
|
||
Harvesting — Trees are very productive and begin to fruit commercially when 6 years
|
||
old. Nuts are picked from the ground, dried, and stored until marketed or used.^^^
|
||
Yields and economics — No yield data available, but all records state that trees are
|
||
precocious and very productive. Great quantities of Japanese chestnut are grown and con
|
||
sumed in Japan and China.
|
||
Energy — Wood, burs, and husks may be used for fuel or charcoal production.
|
||
Biotic factors — The following fungi are known to attack Japanese chestnut: Actinopelte
|
||
japónica, Botryosphaeria ribis, Capnodium salicinum, Cronartium quercinum, Cryptodia-
|
||
porthe castanea, Daedalea que reina, Endothia nitschkei, E. parasitica, E. radicalis, F ornes
|
||
melanoporus, Fomitopsis castanea, Gloeosporium castanicola, Helicobasidium mompa,
|
||
Laestadia orientalis, Leszites betulina, Limacinia cheni, Microsphaera alni, Monochaetia
|
||
desmazierii, M. pachyspora, Ovularia castaneae, Phyllactinia quercus, Phytophthora cam-
|
||
bivora, P. cinnamomi, Polyporus cinnabarinus, P. gilvus, P. hirsutas, P. nidulans, P.
|
||
pargamenus, P. rhodophaeus, P. tulipiferus, P. versicolor, Polystictus hirsutas, P. san
|
||
guineus, Puccineastrum castaneae, Pycnoporus coccineus, Schizophyllum commune, Sep-
|
||
toria gilletiana, Stereum gausapatum. Trámetes dickinsii, T. vittata. Also Bacterium castaneae
|
||
attacks trees. However, plants are resistant to Eastern Filbert B l i g h t . M o r e susceptible
|
||
to chestnut blight fungus, Endothia parasitica, than the Chinese species, C. mollissima.
|
||
Trees may deteriorate slowly or be killed before reaching maturity.
|
||
82 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
CAST ANEA DENT AT A (Marsh.) Borkh. (FAG ACE AE) — American or Sweet Chestnut
|
||
Syn.: Castanea americana Raf.
|
||
Uses — Native and cultivated trees provide nuts which are sweeter than Old World types.
|
||
Nuts are gathered and sold in eastern U.S. markets. Reddish-brown wood light, soft, coarse
|
||
grained, elastic, moderately strong, easily split, easy to work, tending to warp on drying,
|
||
resistant to decay. Used in manufacture of cabinet work, caskets, crates, desks, furniture,
|
||
interior finishes of houses, pianos, railway ties, ship masts, fence posts, telephone poles,
|
||
rails, mine timbers, siding for bams and other buildings, paper pulp. Tannin in wood used
|
||
in tanning extracts. Formerly planted in eastern U.S. as an ornamental and for timber, as
|
||
well as for nuts.^’^^’^^'*
|
||
Folk medicine — Reported to be astringent, sedative, tonic, and vermifuge, American
|
||
chestnut is a folk remedy for dysentery and pertussis.^’ Leaves have sedative properties.
|
||
Indians used the bark to treat worms and dysentery.
|
||
Chemistry — Leaves contain 9% tannic acid, which is colored green with ferric salts,
|
||
and a mucilage insoluble in alcohol.Wood contains from 6 to 11% tannin.Chestnuts
|
||
are starchy nuts, containing ca. 40 to 45% carbohydrates and less than 1% oil, as compared
|
||
with pecans with 70% oil and other tree nuts with ca. 60% oil.^^^ Nuts contain ca. 1,700
|
||
calories/lb.^^^ According to Woodroof,^“^* chestnuts contain no oil and are very high in
|
||
carbohydrates, especially starch, making them more easily digestible than other nuts. Ranging
|
||
from 21 to 25% shells, 4.5 to 6.5% moisture, and 69 to 72% dry matter, native chestnuts
|
||
are reported to contain 2.66 to 2.72% ash, 12.20 to 12.23% total protein, 2.84 to 3.63%
|
||
fiber, 65.03 to 66.16% total nitrogen-free extract, and 16.08 to 16.42% fat.^"^^
|
||
Description — Deciduous tree, up to 50 m tall; tmnk straight, columnar, 1 to 1.3 m in
|
||
diameter; when uncrowned the tmnk is shorter and 3.3 to 4 m in diameter; round-topped,
|
||
with horizontal limbs spreading to 30 m across; branchlets at first yellow-green, tinged with
|
||
red and pubemlous, becoming olive-green and glabrous, eventually becoming dark brown;
|
||
winter-buds ovoid, about 0.6 cm long, with dark-brown scales, scarious on margins; bark
|
||
2.5 to 5 cm thick, dark-brown, deeply ridged with irregular, often intermpted fissures; leaves
|
||
oblong-lanceolate, apex acute, acuminate, base gradually narrowed and cuneate, 15 to 20
|
||
cm long, about 5 cm broad, when young yellow-green and pubemlous on upper surface and
|
||
tomentose beneath, becoming glabrous at maturity, turning yellow late in fall; petioles about
|
||
1.3 cm long, slightly angled, pubemlous, often reddish; stipules ovate-lanceolate, pubem
|
||
lous, about 1.3 cm long; staminate aments at maturity 15 to 20 cm long, with crowded
|
||
flower-clusters; androgynous aments slender, pubemlous, 6 to 12.5 cm long, with 2 or 3
|
||
involucres if pistillate flowers near base; but 5 to 6.5 cm in diameter, covered with glabrous
|
||
much-branched spines, opening with frost and gradually shedding nut; nut much compressed,
|
||
1.3 to 2.5 cm in diameter, broader than long, with thick pale tomentum at apex or nearly
|
||
to middle, interior of hull lined with mfous tomentum; kernel very sweet. Root system
|
||
extensive both laterally and vertically. Flowers with strong fragrance, June to July.^^®
|
||
Germplasm — Reported from the North American Center of Diversity, American chestnut
|
||
or CVS thereof, is reported to tolerate drought, frost, heat, poor soil, sand, slope, and weeds.
|
||
Some varieties grown for nuts are ‘Ketchem’, ‘Watson’, and ‘GriffinHybrids with
|
||
blight-resistant Chinese and Japanese species have led to several mixed varieties not in
|
||
cultivation. Continuous efforts to find immune or resistant strains and repeated attempts to
|
||
produce resistant hybrids resembling it have failed to give varieties considered safe to plant.
|
||
‘Clapper’ is a hybrid from a cross of Chinese-American hybrid backcrossed to the American
|
||
chestnut, and is a rapid-growing timber-type.
|
||
(2n = 24.)
|
||
Distribution — Native throughout the eastern U.S. from southern Maine to southern
|
||
Ontario, south to Delaware, Ohio, southern Indiana, and along the mountains to northern
|
||
83
|
||
Georgia and western Florida, from sea-level in Massachusetts to 1,300 m in North Carolina,
|
||
reaching its greatest height in western North Carolina and eastern Tennessee. Until about
|
||
1905, chestnut was important for its durable wood and its nuts. Trees were nearly completely
|
||
destroyed by the Chestnut Blight, a fungus bark disease (Endothia parasitica). Sprouts and
|
||
shrubby growth from bases of wild trees still appear and sometimes persist long enough to
|
||
produce fruit.
|
||
Ecology — Ranging from Cool Temperate Steppe to Moist through Warm Temperate to
|
||
Moist Forest Life Zones, American chestnut is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of
|
||
4.9 to 11.6 dm (mean of 3 cases = 8.3), annual temperature of 8.4 to 12.5°C (mean of 3
|
||
cases = 9.9), and pH of 5.6 to 7.3 (mean of 3 cases = 6.5).®^ Thrives on a variety of
|
||
soils, from almost pure sand to coarse gravels and shales. Does not grow well on limestone.
|
||
Prefers dry, well-drained, rocky land of the glacial drift to the richer, more compact alluvial
|
||
soil of lowlands. Chestnut does not need a rich soil so much as one whose physical structure
|
||
insures good drainage. Light is essential to the tree, since it is somewhat intolerant to shade.
|
||
Grows best in a cool climate, but can endure heat and dry sunny situations.Hardy to
|
||
Zone 4.^"^^
|
||
Cultivation — Propagation is by direct seedling or by use of nursery-grown seedlings.
|
||
To prevent drying out and lowering of germination ability, collected seeds should be kept
|
||
stratified in moist sand until the following spring. The nursery should be located on fresh,
|
||
well-drained, fertile soil. Thorough cultivation of soil is required. Seed should be planted
|
||
about 2.5 cm apart in rows about 45 cm apart, at a depth of 2.5 cm. Bushel contains 6,500
|
||
to 8,000 nuts, sufficient to plant about 200 m of nursery rows, and to produce about 4,000
|
||
plants. While in the nursery, seedlings require careful cultivation and should be kept weed-
|
||
free. When planting in permanent sites, trees should be set 2 m apart each way. If trees are
|
||
to be grown directly from seed without transplanting, seed spots should be prepared, spaced
|
||
as above. Two or three seeds should be planted in each and covered about 2.5 cm deep
|
||
with fine soil. Only one tree should be allowed to remain in each hill. Little cultivation is
|
||
necessary after trees become established. Seedlings grow 25 to 37 cm by the end of the first
|
||
season and 37 to 50 cm per year until the 13th year.^^®
|
||
Harvesting — Mature nuts should be gathered every other day during the period of
|
||
maturity. Frequent and clean collection of nuts is especially important if nuts are likely to
|
||
be infested with weevils or if weather is hot and dry. Within a week’s time, nuts on the
|
||
ground, or those in opened burs on trees, may become dry or they may mold and spoil. In
|
||
harvesting nuts from a tree, it is advisable to first knock nuts from opened burs with pole
|
||
and then gather up nuts from ground. If harvested nuts are infested with weevils, they should
|
||
be treated by immersing them in water at 49°C for 30 to 45 min, depending on size of nuts.
|
||
After heating for proper length of time, nuts are removed immediately from hot water and
|
||
permitted to dry. Nuts, gathered and treated, are spread out in a layer no more than 3 or 4
|
||
nuts deep to cure, on a floor or in trays in a well-ventilated building. Nuts should receive
|
||
no direct sunlight. Time for curing depends upon amount of moisture in air. Usually 1 or
|
||
2 days of curing is adequate. Under proper conditions, chestnuts can be stored from time
|
||
of harvest to late April with minimal spoilage; nuts come out of storage in the same condition
|
||
as they went in, and they have been found to germinate promptly. Chestnuts for eating may
|
||
be stored in deep freezers, but they must be cooked promptly after being removed. To freeze
|
||
the nuts, they should be shelled and the kernels blanched. Nuts must not be roasted slowly,
|
||
as they will explode in oven or they will not freeze satisfactorily. After shells have been
|
||
removed, if any of brown skin covering kernel remains, kernels should be blanched. This
|
||
is done by immersing kernels in boiling water for 1 or 2 min and quickly freezing them in
|
||
freezer containers. They are then kept — 18°C or lower until ready to be cooked, like frozen
|
||
peas or lima beans. Chestnuts are marketed packaged in cans, woven bags of cotton or jute,
|
||
or in baskets having tight-fitting lids.^^® Leaves are collected in September and October.
|
||
84 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
With smaller nuts, the American chestnut, had it survived productive, would be expected
|
||
to yield somewhat less than the European. Smith reports Italian yields of ca. 1100 kg/ha,
|
||
French of 1500, and Spanish of ca. 2800 kg/ha.
|
||
Yields and economics — Yield varies from 6,500 to 8,000 nuts per bu. At present time,
|
||
American chestnut is not an item of commercial importance, either for the nuts or for timber,
|
||
as it was prior to 1907 to 1918, when most of the trees in the eastern U.S. were destroyed.
|
||
Chestnuts grown at present are hybrids of Chinese chestnuts (C. mollissima) or other species,
|
||
resistant to blight.
|
||
Energy — Wood and burs may be used for firewood or for the production of charcoal.
|
||
Biotic factors — American chestnut is devastated by Chestnut Blight {Endothia paras
|
||
itica), and since 1918 it has not been a commercial product.Weevils in the nuts are a
|
||
problem.Browne^^ lists the following as affecting this species: Fungi — Cryptodiaporthe
|
||
castanea, Daedalea quercina, Endothia parasitica, Phellinus gilvas, Phytophthora dentata,
|
||
Polyporus frondosas, P pargamenus, Urnula craterium; Acariña — Oligonychas bicolor,
|
||
Coleóptera — Elaphidion villosanr, Lepidoptera — Acronicta americana, Alsophila po-
|
||
metaria, Anisota virginiensis, Datana ministra, Disphargia gattivitta, Ennomos magnaria,
|
||
E. sabsignaria, Lymantria dispar, Nematocampa dentata, Symmerista albifrons; and Mam
|
||
malia — Lepas americanas, Odocoileas virginianas. According to Agriculture Handbook
|
||
165,"^ the following are reported as affecting C. dentata: Actinopelte dryina (leaf spot),
|
||
Alearodiscas acerinas (bark patch), Anthostoma dryophilam, Armillaria mellea (root and
|
||
butt rot), Asconidiam castaneae, Botryosphaeria ribis, B. castaneae, Cenangum castaneae,
|
||
C. albo-atrum, Ceratostomella microspora, Chlorociboria aeruginosa, C. versiformia,
|
||
Chlorosplenium chlora, Clasterosporiam sigmoideam, Clitocybe illudens, C. monadelpha,
|
||
Colpoma quercinum, Corticium caeruleum, Coryneum spp., Cronartium cerebrum (rust),
|
||
Cryptodiaporthe castanea (twig canker), Cryptospora cinctula, Cylindrosporiam castaneae
|
||
(Leaf spot), Daedalea quercina, D. confragosa, Diaporthe eres, Didymella castañeda,
|
||
Diplodia longispora, Discohainesia oenotherae, Discosia artocreas, Endothia gyrosa, E.
|
||
radicalis. Fax olas alveolaris, F ene Stella castanicola, F. phaeospora. Fistulina hepática,
|
||
F. pallida, Flammula sp.. Pomes annosas (root and butt rot), F. applanatus (butt rot or on
|
||
stumps), F. everhartii (white spongy heart rot), F. ohiensis, F. pinicola (brown crumbly
|
||
heart rot), F. scutellatus, Gnomonia setacea, Hymenochaete rubiginosa, Laestadia castan
|
||
icola, Lenzites betulina, Leptothyrium castaneae, Marssonina ochroleaca, Melanconis mo-
|
||
donia, Melanconium cinctum, Meraliasfagax, M. tremellosas, Microsphaerea alni (powdery
|
||
mildew), Monochaetia desmazierii (leaf spot), M. pachyspora, Mycosphaerella maculifor-
|
||
mis, M. punctiformis, Myxosporiam castaneam. Panas radis, P. stipticas, Pezicula par
|
||
par ascens, Pholiota adiposa, P. sqaarrosa, Phoma castanea, Phyllosticta castanea, P.
|
||
fusispora, Physalospora obtusa, Phytophthora cinnamomi, Pleurotus ostreatas, Polyporus
|
||
spp., Rutstroemia americana, Scolecosporiam fagi, Sphaerognomonia carpinea, Steccher-
|
||
inum adustum, Steream spp., Strumella coryneoidea, Trametes sepiam (wood rot), and
|
||
Xylaria hypoxylon.^^^'^^^'^^^
|
||
85
|
||
CASTANEA MOLLISSIMA Blume (FAGACEAE) — Chinese Hairy Chestnut
|
||
Syn.: Castanea saliva \ 2lt . formosana Hayata, Castanea formo sana (Hayata) Hayata,
|
||
and Castanea bungeana Blume.
|
||
Uses — Nut unexcelled in sweetness and general palatability by any other known chestnut.
|
||
By far the most common food nut, almost taking the place of potato in parts of the Orient.
|
||
Eaten raw, boiled, roasted, cooked with meat, made into confections, powdered and mixed
|
||
with candy, dried whole. Valuable for wildlife where nut production is more important than
|
||
timber. Recommended for hardiness, blight resistance and large nuts. Wood, leaves, and
|
||
bark used for their tannin content.Has merit as an ornamental tree.^'*^
|
||
Folk medicine — Reported to be hemostat, Chinese chestnut is a folk remedy for diarrhea,
|
||
dysentery, epistaxis, nausea, and thirst.The flower is used for scrofula. Stem-bark used
|
||
for poisoned wounds; the sap for lacquer poisoning. The fruit pulp is poulticed onto animal
|
||
bites, rheumatism, and virulent sores; husk astringent and used for dysentery, nausea, and
|
||
thirst; charred husks applied to boils. The root is used for hernia.^
|
||
Chemistry — Per 100 g, the seed (ZMB) is reported to contain 403 calories, 11.9 g
|
||
protein, 2.7 g fat, 83.2 g total carbohydrate, 2.2 g ash, 36 mg Ca, 168 mg P, 3.8 mg Fe,
|
||
216 |xg beta-carotene equivalent, 0.29 mg thiamine, 0.32 mg riboflavin, 1.44 mg niacin,
|
||
and 65 mg ascorbic acid.*^
|
||
Description — Deciduous trees, long-lived, 15 to 20 m tall, spreading, round-topped;
|
||
branches glabrous, branchlets covered with dense pubescence of coarse spreading hairs;
|
||
86 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
leaves with dense stellate pubescence when young, this persistent on under-surface of mature
|
||
leaves, alternate, 10 to 20 cm long, 5 to 10 cm broad, with 12 to 20 deep serrations on
|
||
each side, oblong-lanceolate to elliptic-oblong, base rounded or cordate, apex acute to
|
||
scarcely acuminate; petioles 2 to 3 cm long, with few long hairs; stipules over 2 cm long,
|
||
very veiny and rugose, abruptly broadened; staminate spikes axillary or terminal, 20 cm
|
||
long or more; pistillate flowers in hirsute globose involucres 1 cm thick, situated at base of
|
||
male spikes or occasionally terminating some spikes; styles about 5 mm long, densely hirsute;
|
||
bur up to 6 cm thick, with long, very stout, strongly pubescent spines; nut about 2.5 cm
|
||
thick, with small to rather extensive patch of tawny felt at apex; nut with thin skin which
|
||
peels readily from kernel. Flowers late May to late June in Maryland, earlier south ward.
|
||
Germplasm — Reported from the China-Japan Center of Diversity, Chinese chestnut,
|
||
or CVS thereof, is reported to tolerate disease, frost, and slope.Many cvs have been
|
||
introduced from China, and several hybrids with Japanese and American chestnuts have
|
||
been produced in attempts to breed-in blight-resistance. But most of them have failed for
|
||
one reason or another. Cultivars presently in the trade include: ‘Abundance’, which produces
|
||
110 nuts per kg (84 to 167); ‘Ruling’, ‘Meiling’, ‘Nanking’, and ‘Carr’; the latter produces
|
||
128 nuts per kg, has good cleaning quality, a sweet, pleasing flavor, and was the first variety
|
||
grafted in this country, but is not grown at the present time. Most of grafted Chinese chestnuts
|
||
have shown troublesome stock-scion incompatibility, which causes grafts to fail. Such
|
||
failures may occur in the first year, but more often after 4 to 6 years of vigorous growth.
|
||
Failure seems to relate to winter injury and is more frequent northward. Seedlings of selected
|
||
trees, as ‘Hemming’ from Maryland and ‘Peter Lui’ from Georgia, are among the most
|
||
promising. Seedlings of ‘Nanking’ come true to type and are planted commercially in the
|
||
South. Other cvs are hardy northward to Maryland, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and the
|
||
warmer areas of New York. Two of the more recent hybrids are ‘Sleeping Giant Chestnut’
|
||
(C. mollissima x (C. crenata x C. dentata)) and ‘Kelsy Chestnut’ (C. mollissima x ?).
|
||
Also, ‘Stoke’ is a natural Japanese x Chinese chestnut hybrid.
|
||
Distribution — Native to north and west China and Korea. First introduced in the U.S.
|
||
in 1853 and again in 1903 and 1906. This species has been in cultivation in China for a
|
||
long time. It is practically the only species of chestnut being planted in the U.S. for
|
||
commercial purposes.
|
||
Ecology — Ranging from Warm Temperate Dry to Moist through Subtropical Dry to
|
||
Moist Forest Life Zones, Chinese chestnut is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 9.4
|
||
to 12.8 dm (mean of 5 cases = 11.6), annual temperature of 10.3 to 17.6°C (mean of 5
|
||
cases = 14.2°C), and pH of 5.5 to 6.5 (mean of 5 cases = 5.9).^^
|
||
Chinese chestnut requires much the same conditions of climate, soil, and soil moisture
|
||
as does peach. Air-drainage must be good, and frost pockets must be avoided. Trees grow
|
||
naturally on light-textured acid soils, but they show a wide range of tolerance for well-
|
||
drained soils of different textures. Young trees are sensitive to drought and may be killed.
|
||
Cultivars and hybrids are about as hardy as peach and may be planted in any areas where
|
||
peaches do well, most withstanding temperatures to -28°C when fully dormant. Unless
|
||
leaves are removed soon after turning brown, they are apt to become heavily laden with
|
||
wet snow or ice and cause severe damage. This situation is particularly common at altitudes
|
||
of 600 to 700 m, as in West Virginia.Hardy to Zone 4.^"^^
|
||
Cultivation — Propagated readily from seed, from which selections are made. Nuts lose
|
||
their viability quickly after harvesting. Seeds may be germinated in nursery beds and the
|
||
seedlings planted out after two y e a rs.A s they do not compete well with weeds, young
|
||
trees should be kept cultivated for the first few years.Trees lend themselves readily to
|
||
orchard culture, although trees are not particularly vigorous. Trees are self-sterile; in order
|
||
to produce fruit, two or more cultivars should always be planted near each other for cross
|
||
pollination. Spring growth is rapid as long as soil is moist, but root development is shallow
|
||
87
|
||
during the first few years, and trees must be watered during dry periods. Young trees
|
||
frequently retain their leaves during much of the winter. Sun-scald on exposed sides of
|
||
trunks of newly planted trees may be a problem. Usually trees are headed low enough to
|
||
provide for shading by tops. Trees should be planted as close as 4 x 4 m or 4.6 X 4.6 m
|
||
each way; such trees should not be pruned. Cutting the lower branches from trunks invites
|
||
blight infection. Trees do best when left to grow in bush form. Trees planted in this manner
|
||
must have good cultivation, the same as for apple, peach, or pear trees.
|
||
Harvesting — Trees begin to bear when 5 to 6 years old; those for orchard culture with
|
||
profitable crops begin in 10 to 12 years. Chestnuts should be harvested daily as soon as
|
||
burs open and nuts fall to ground. Nuts should be placed at once on shelves or in curing
|
||
containers with wooden or metal bottoms to prevent larvae which may crawl out of nut from
|
||
reaching the ground. All infected nuts should be promptly burned. For curing the nuts, they
|
||
should be spread thinly on floors or the like, stirred frequently and held for 5 to 10 days,
|
||
depending upon condition of nuts and atmospheric conditions at time of harvest. During the
|
||
curing period, nuts will shrink in weight, and the color will change from lustrous to dull
|
||
brown. Three weeks is about as long as Chinese chestnuts remain sound without special
|
||
treatment. Chestnuts should be marketed as promptly as possible to minimize deterioration.
|
||
Chestnuts in sound condition may be stored in cold storage with temperature just above
|
||
freezing; this is the simplest method. Stratifying in a wire-mesh container buried deeply in
|
||
moist, well-drained sand is also very satisfactory. Putting nuts in a tightly closed tin container
|
||
at refrigerator temperature or in cold storage at 0°C is also acceptable.
|
||
Yields and economics — Average yields are about 13 to 25 kg per year per tree, with
|
||
large trees producing from 25 to 126 kg per tree.^^^ According to Wyman,trees are said
|
||
to produce an average crop of 34 to 45 kg edible nuts per tree. Major producers are China
|
||
and Korea. Very limited cultivation in U.S., with trend increasing.
|
||
Energy — Wood and burs may be used to bum, as is, or converted to charcoal.
|
||
Biotic factors — The following have been reported as affecting this species: Cronartium
|
||
cerebrum (mst), Cryptodiaporthe castanea (canker, dieback), Cytospora sp. (twig blight),
|
||
Diplodia sp. (twig blight), Discohainesia oenotherae, Gloeosporium sp. (blossom-end rot
|
||
of nuts), Marssonina ochroleuca (leaf spot), Phomopsis sp. (twig blight), Septoria gilletiana
|
||
(leaf spot), and Stereum gausapatum (heart rot)."^ Pollination is carried on by insects. Chinese
|
||
chestnut is largely, but not wholly, self-sterile. More than a single seedling or grafted cv
|
||
should be included in any planting. Several seedlings or several cvs would be better. Trees
|
||
producing inferior fruit should be removed. Chinese chestnut is not immune to the blight
|
||
(Endothia parasitica), but is sufficiently resistant for trees to persist and bear crops. Trees
|
||
develop bark cankers as a a result of infection, but the lesions usually heal. Nuts are attacked
|
||
by several diseases, either before or after harvest. Most serious pests are chestnut weevils,
|
||
often called curculios, which if unchecked, often render whole crops unfit for use.^® Trees
|
||
are often planted in poultry yards, in order to decimate the bugs. Japanese beetles are a
|
||
serious pest on leaves in some areas. June bugs and May beetle also feed on the newest
|
||
leaves, mainly at night.
|
||
Jones et al.^^"^ report that in commercial and home plantings of Chinese chestnut in 6
|
||
southeastern and eastern states, 23 of the trees had main stem cankers incited by Endothia
|
||
parasitica. In general, they found the main stem canker incidence (13 to 93) was higher in
|
||
plantings of the Appalachian Mountain region than in the Piedmont region (2 to 13 incidence).
|
||
They found the trees that were damaged most were located in high-wind and cold-winter
|
||
areas of the Appalachian Mountains.
|
||
88 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
CASTANEA PUMILA (L.) Mill. (FAGACEAE) — Chinquapin, Allegany Chinkapin
|
||
Uses — Kernels of nuts are sweet and edible, but are not consumed by humans very
|
||
much; they are more of a wildlife food;^^^ also used to fatten hogs.'^® Used by Indians in
|
||
making bread and a drink similar to hot chocolateboiled and strung to make necklaces.'^®
|
||
Shrubs useful for planting on dry, rocky slopes, as they are attractive when in flower and
|
||
again in fall with their light green burs and dark foliage. Often planted as an ornamental.
|
||
The light, coarse-grained, hard, strong, and dark-brown wood is used for fenceposts, rails,
|
||
and railway ties.^^^
|
||
Folk medicine — Reported to be tonic and astringent, chinquapin is a folk remedy for
|
||
intermittent fevers.
|
||
Chemistry — No data available.
|
||
Description — Usually a spreading shrub east of Mississippi River, 2 to 5 m tall, forming
|
||
thickets, often only 1.3 to 1.6 m tall, westward in range to Arkansas and eastern Texas,
|
||
becoming a tree to 17 m tall with trunk up to I m in diameter, round-topped with spreading
|
||
branches; branchlets at first bright red-brown, pubescent or nearly glabrous, becoming olive-
|
||
green or dark-brown; winter-buds reddish, oval to ovoid, about 0.3 cm long, tomentose
|
||
becoming scurfy pubescent; bark 1.3 to 2.5 cm thick, light-brown tinged red, slightly
|
||
furrowed; leaves oblong-elliptic to oblong-ovate, 7.5 to 15 cm long, 3 to 5 cm broad,
|
||
coarsely serrate, acuminate, gradually narrowed, unequal, rounded or cuneate at base, early
|
||
tomentose on both surfaces, at maturity thick and firm, pubescent beneath, turning dull
|
||
yellow in fall; petioles pubescent to nearly glabrous, flattened on upper surface, up to 1.3
|
||
cm long; stipules pubescent, ovate to ovate-lanceolate to linear at end of branch; staminate
|
||
catkins single in leaf-axils toward ends of branches, simple with minute calyx and 8 to 20
|
||
stamens, yellowish-white, slender, at maturity 10 to 15 cm long, pubescent, flowers in
|
||
crowded or scattered clusters; pistillate flowers on catkins near very tips of branches, several
|
||
females near base, numerous males on more distal portion (androgynous), silvery tomentose,
|
||
7.5 to 10 cm long; fruits usually several or many in large compact head or spike, each
|
||
involucre 1-flowered, 2 to 3.5 cm wide; bur 2 to 3.5 cm in diameter, covered with crowded
|
||
fascicles of slender spines, tomentose at base; nut shining, reddish-brown, ovoid, 1 to 2.5
|
||
cm long, about 0.8 cm thick, coated with sil very-white pubescence, shell lined with lustrous
|
||
tomentum; kernel sweet. Flowers later than leaves. May to early June; fruits September to
|
||
October.
|
||
Germplasm — Reported from the North American Center of Diversity, chinquapin, or
|
||
CVS thereof, is reported to tolerate frost, poor soil, slope, weeds, and waterlogging.^^ Few
|
||
selections of chinquapin have been made. More frequently it has been hybridized with
|
||
chestnuts. C. pumila var. ashei Sudw. (C. ashei Sudw.), the Coastal Chinquapin, grows
|
||
on sand dunes and in sandy woods along the coast from southeastern Virginia to northern
|
||
Florida and along the Gulf; small tree to 9 m tall and 26 cm in diameter, or large shrub,
|
||
leaves smaller, about 7.5 cm long and 3.5 cm broad, and spines on involucre less numerous.
|
||
Thought by some not to be distinct from species. Trees native to Arkansas and eastern Texas
|
||
are so much larger than those east of the Mississippi River, that they are considered by
|
||
some as a distinct species, Castanea ozarkensis Ashe; trees to 20 m tall, with narrowly
|
||
oblong elliptic leaves often 15 to 20 cm long, distinctly acuminate, coarsely serrate, with
|
||
triangular acuminate teeth, x Castanea neglecta Dode is a natural hybrid with American
|
||
chestnut (C. dentata), with intermediate leaves and involucres containing one large nut;
|
||
occurring in Blue Ridge areas (Highlands, North Carolina), ‘Essate-Jap’ is a hybrid between
|
||
the chinquapin and the Japanese chestnut, which forms a larger tree, with early flowers,
|
||
and nuts ripening 2 weeks or more before Chinese chestnuts; it grafts better on Japanese
|
||
stock than on Chinese. (2n = 24.)^^®
|
||
Distribution — Native in eastern U.S. from southern New Jersey and Pennsylvania to
|
||
89
|
||
western Florida, through Gulf States to Texas (valley of Nueces River). It is most abundant
|
||
and attains its largest size in southern Arkansas and eastern Texas.
|
||
Ecology — Ranging from Cool Temperate Wet through Subtropical Moist Forest Life
|
||
Zones, chinquapin is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 11 to 13 dm, annual tem
|
||
perature of 12 to 19°C, and pH of 5.6 to 5.8.^^ Grows in mixed upland woods, on dry sandy
|
||
ridges, on hillsides, in sandy wastes, and along borders of ponds and streams, in dry or wet
|
||
acid soil. Occurs from sea-level to 1,500 m in the Appalachian Mountains. Prefers undis
|
||
turbed woods with plentiful humus, and a warm temperate climate.Grows in dry woods
|
||
and thickets.*^® Hardy to Zone 5.^^^^
|
||
Cultivation — Propagated from seed, or often spreading by stolons. Seeds germinate
|
||
easily, sometimes sending out hypocotyl before reaching the ground. Although chinquapin
|
||
is planted, it is not cultivated as a crop. Occasionally, plants are planted for ornamentals,
|
||
or along edge of woods for wildlife food. Once planted, shrubs require no attention.
|
||
Harvesting — Shrubs begin bearing nuts when 3 to 5 years old, and are prolific producers
|
||
of small, sweet, nutty-flavored nuts. Nuts harvested in fall by man and wildlife.
|
||
Yields and economics — According to Rosengarten^^^ nuts of C. pumila, sweet and very
|
||
small, yield 400 to 700 nuts per lb (800 to 1540/kg), compared to 75 to 160/lb (165 to
|
||
352/kg) for the American chestnut, and 30 to 150/lb (66 to 330/kg) for Chinese chestnut.
|
||
Nuts are sold in markets in southern and western states. Timber is used west of the Mississippi
|
||
River. Most valuable as wildlife crop.^^^
|
||
Energy — Wood and burs can be used for fuel, as is, or converted to charcoal.
|
||
Biotic factors — Although chinquapin is not resistant to the Chestnut Blight (Endothia
|
||
parasitica), shrubs make up for loss of diseased stems by increased growth of remaining
|
||
stems and by production of new shoots.Agriculture Handbook 165"^ lists the following
|
||
as affecting C. pumula: Actinopelte dryina (leaf spot), Armillaria mellea (root and butt rot),
|
||
Cronartium cerebrum (rust), Cryptospora cinctula, Discohainesia oenotherae, Endothia
|
||
radicalis, Gnomonia setacea, Lenzites betulina and L. trabea (brown cubical rot of dead
|
||
trunks and timber), Marssonina ochroleuca (brown-bordered leaf spot, eyespot), Melan-
|
||
conium cinctum (on twigs), Microsphaerea alni (powdery mildew), Monochaetia desmazierii
|
||
(leaf spot), Phyllosticta castanea (leaf spot), Phymatotrichum omnivorum (root rot), Phy
|
||
tophthora cinnamomi (root and collar rot of nursery plants and forest trees). Poly poms spp.
|
||
(various wood rots), and Stereum spp. (various wood rots).
|
||
90 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
CAST ANEA SATIVA Mill. (FAG ACE AE)—European, Spanish, Italian, or Sweet Chestnut
|
||
Syn.: C astan ea vu lgaris Lam., C astan ea vesca Gaertn., and C astan ea castan ea Karst.
|
||
Uses — European chestnuts are grown for the kernels of the nuts, extensively eaten by
|
||
humans and animals. Nuts used as vegetable, boiled, roasted, steamed, pureed, or in dressing
|
||
for poultry and meats. In some areas, chestnuts are considered a staple food, two daily
|
||
meals being made from them.^^® In some European mountainous regions, chestnuts are still
|
||
the staff of life, taking the place of wheat and potatoes in the form of chestnut flour, chestnut
|
||
bread, and mashed chestnuts. Flour made of ground chestnuts is said to have provided a
|
||
staple ration for Roman legions.In Italy, they are prepared like stew with gravy. Dried
|
||
nuts used for cooking purposes as fresh nuts, or eaten like peanuts. Culled chestnuts used
|
||
safely for fattening poultry and hogs. Cattle will also eat them.^^® Used as a coffee substitute,
|
||
for thickening soups, fried in oil; also used in brandy, in confectionary, desserts, and as a
|
||
source of oil. The relatively hard, durable, fine-grained wood is easy to split, not easy to
|
||
bend. Used for general carpentry, railroad ties, and the manufacture of cellulose. The bark
|
||
is used for tanning.
|
||
Folk medicine — According to Hartwell,the nuts, when crushed with vinegar and
|
||
barley flour, have been said to be a folk remedy for indurations of the breasts. Reported to
|
||
be astringent, sedative and tonic, European chestnut is a folk remedy for circulation problems,
|
||
cough, extravasation, fever, hematochezia, hernia, hunger, hydrocoele, infection, inflam
|
||
mation, kidney ailments, myalgia, nausea, paroxysm, pertussis, rheumatism, sclerosis, scro
|
||
fula, sores, stomach ailments, and wounds.Aqueous infusion of leaves used as tonic,
|
||
astringent, and effective in coughs and irritable conditions of respiratory organs.
|
||
Chemistry — Per 100 g, the seed (ZMB) is reported to contain 406 to 408 calories, 6.1
|
||
to 7.5 g protein, 2.8 to 3.2 g fat, 87.7 to 88.6 g total carbohydrate, 2.3 to 2.4 g fiber, 2.0
|
||
to 2.1 g ash, 30.3 to 56.8 mg Ca, 184 to 185 mg P, 3.4 to 3.6 mg Fe, 12.6 to 32.3 mg
|
||
Na, 956 to 1705 mg K, 0.46 mg thiamine, 0.46 mg riboflavin, and 1.21 to 1.26 mg niacin.®^
|
||
Chemical composition is similar to that of wheat; starch is easily digested after cooking.
|
||
WoodrooU"^^ reports Spanish chestnuts to contain 2.87 to 3.03% ash, 9.61 to 10.96% total
|
||
protein, 2.55 to 2.84% fiber, 73.75 to 77.70% total nitrogen-free extract, and 7.11 to 9.58%
|
||
fat. In a study on chestnuts from 19 natural stands in southern Yugoslavia, Miric et al.^^"^
|
||
found in most samples the total fat content was between 4 and 5, the highest 5.62. Oleic
|
||
and linoleic acids predominated, followed by palmitic.
|
||
Description — Tree 30 m or more tall, with girth to 10 m; trunk straight, smooth, and
|
||
blackish or dark-green in youth, finally becoming brownish-gray with deep longitudinal and
|
||
often spirally curved fissures; branches wide-spreading; young shoots at first minutely downy,
|
||
becoming glabrous; buds ovoid, obtuse, the terminal one absent; young leaves densely
|
||
stellately pubescent, becoming glabrous; mature leaves 10 to 25 cm long, 3 to 7 cm broad,
|
||
oblong-elliptic to oblong-lanceolate, apex long-acuminate, base more or less rounded or
|
||
cordate, upper surface soft green, lower paler; blades rather thick and stiff, with 6 to 20
|
||
bristles on each of the rather deeply serrate margins; petioles minutely velutinous, glandular-
|
||
lepidote or glabrous, about 2 cm long; stipules lanceolate, long-acute, gradually broadened
|
||
at base, 1 to 2.5 cm long, not markedly veined; winter buds dull-red, pubescent, long ovoid-
|
||
conic; staminate spikes 8 to 10 cm long, about 1 cm thick; pistillate flowers at base of male
|
||
spikes in large globose strigose involucres 1 to 2 cm thick; styles exserted up to 8 mm,
|
||
sparsely marked with ascending appressed hairs; bur green, 4 to 6 cm in diameter, with
|
||
numerous slender minutely pubescent spines up to 2 cm long; inside or husk marked by
|
||
very dense golden felt; nuts shining brown, with paler base, often 2 to 3.5 cm in diameter,
|
||
at tip thickly pubescent, bearing a short stalked perigynium with its persistent styles; kernel
|
||
variable from bitter to sweet. Flowers late May to July.^^^
|
||
Germplasm — Reported from the Near East Center of Diversity, European chestnut, or
|
||
91
|
||
CVS thereof, is reported to tolerate bacteria, frost, mycobacteria, and slope.The only
|
||
disadvantage of the European chestnut is that the skin is astringent, but since most of them
|
||
are cooked before eating, the skin is removed readily. The skin should not be eaten, as it
|
||
is indigestible. When European is crossed with American Sweet, this difficulty is modified
|
||
or eliminated. The following are some of the most generally cultivated cvs. ‘Marrón Corn-
|
||
bale’, ‘Marrón Nousillard’, and ‘Marrón Quercy’ originated in France; all have the very
|
||
large light- to dark-brown nuts and are very productive; ‘Numbo’ and ‘Paragon’ are the
|
||
most frequently grown cvs in the U.S.; they have medium-large, roundish nuts of fair quality,
|
||
and bear regularly. ‘Ridgely’, originated in Dover, Delaware, has fair-sized nuts, of very
|
||
good quality and flavor, with 2 or 3 nuts per bur; it is vigorous and productive. ‘Rochester’
|
||
and ‘Comfort’ are grown to a limited extent. Hybrids with C. dentata have leaves with
|
||
cuneate bases. Some garden forms have variegated leaves or laciniate leaves (var. asplenifolia
|
||
Lodd.). (2n = 22,24.
|
||
Distribution — Native from southern Europe through Asia Minor to China. Cultivated
|
||
in many parts of the Himalayas, especially in Punjab and Khasia Hills. Naturalized in central,
|
||
western, and northern Europe, almost forming forests. Introduced on Pacific Coast of the
|
||
U.S. Extensively planted for its nuts and timber.Introduced to the U.S. in 1773 by
|
||
Thomas Jefferson.
|
||
Ecology — Ranging from Cool Temperate Steppe to Wet through Warm Temperate Steppe
|
||
to Dry Forest Life Zones, European chestnut is reported to tolerate precipitation of 3.9 to
|
||
13.6 dm (mean of 14 cases = 8.6), annual temperature of 7.4 to 18.0°C (mean of 14 cases
|
||
= 10.8), and pH of 4.5 to 7.4 (mean of 10 cases = 6.4).^^
|
||
In woods, and often forming forests, on well-drained soils, often on mountain slopes,
|
||
usually calcifuge. Acclimated to all temperate areas. Trees retain foliage late in fall.^^^
|
||
Cultivation — Thorough preparation of soil before planting is essential. For orchard
|
||
planting, trees are propagated by grafting and budding. Whip grafts on small shoots or
|
||
stocks about 1.3 to 2 cm in diameter, or cleft grafts on shoots 1.3 to 3 cm in diameter give
|
||
most successful results. Bark graft on shoots is also successful. In any method of grafting,
|
||
great care must be used in waxing and then rewaxing in about 2 weeks. Wax should cover
|
||
cuts made in stock and scion, and should be applied immediately after inserting the latter.
|
||
Scion should be waxed for its entire length, leaving no bubbles. Cover whole by tying paper
|
||
bag over top. European types frequently outgrow stocks and cause an enlarged imperfect
|
||
union. For orchard planting, trees should be spaced 13 x 13m, 17 x 17m, or20 x 20
|
||
m; on good soil, the latter is preferable. Row could be set 20 m apart, with trees 7 to 8 m
|
||
apart in rows. It may be necessary to remove every other tree after they reach a certain size.
|
||
Good distance between rows provides for better growth of trees, and interplanting with
|
||
vegetables or small fruits. In any event, do not crowd chestnut trees. Dig holes 75 x 75
|
||
cm, breaking down topsoil around rim and allowing it to fall into hole. Always use fine
|
||
top-soil around roots and firm soil well after planting. Before planting, cut with knife all
|
||
broken or bruised roots, and clip end of every root. Set trees no deeper than in nursery and
|
||
in same position, the bark on the north side being greener than that on south side. There
|
||
will be less loss from sunburn if southern side, hardened by exposure, is again placed to
|
||
the south. During first year or two, trees should be shaded. Sometimes the trunk is wrapped
|
||
with paraffined paper or burlap, lightly enough not to interfere with flow of sap. After
|
||
planting, cut back top to about 1.6 m; if tree is a straight whip, or if branched, cut branches
|
||
down to 2 or 3 buds from trunk. Staking young trees is desirable, but not necessary. Young
|
||
trees should be pruned to an open spreading form with 3 to 5 main branches on which top
|
||
will eventually form, after which trees need little care other than good culture. If trees are
|
||
allowed to overbear, nuts run down in size. Trees usually develop well without irrigation,
|
||
but larger yields result when water is applied. While tree is young, regular irrigation is very
|
||
desirable. Unless intercrops are grown, irrigation may be limited to one application per
|
||
92 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
month during growing season, after trees are bearing. Young trees may require irrigation
|
||
twice a month. Water should penetrate well into subsoil. Light irrigation induces shallow
|
||
rooting, which is undesirable. Do not continue irrigation too late in growing season, as it
|
||
is likely to make nuts crack open or over-develop them. Cracked nuts soon spoil and mold.
|
||
Cultivation must be thorough, so that free growth is promoted. After maturity, cultivation
|
||
need not be so intensive. During the first few years, it is advisable to hoe around tree by
|
||
hand, but after tree is well-established, annual plowing or cultivation after each irrigation
|
||
is sufficient. Annual cover crops may be used to build up or maintain soil fertility. Two-
|
||
year-old grafts are commonly loaded with burs, and if such grafted trees show a tendency
|
||
to bear heavily while young, burs should be thinned out so that very few remain. Otherwise,
|
||
trees will grow out of shape and be retarded in their development. Sometimes burs are
|
||
picked from trees for 3 or 4 years until trees become well established, before beginning nut
|
||
production. With seedlings and grafted trees, a mixture of cvs gives better yield of nuts. If
|
||
all burs are filled, tree would not stand the weight nor develop nuts to marketable size.
|
||
Many burs are empty and many have few mature nuts, perhaps a provision of nature, rather
|
||
than poor pollination. Many trees self-prune (drop) fruits or abort seeds.
|
||
Harvesting — Allow burs to mature thoroughly and fall of their own accord. Some cvs
|
||
stick, so that shaking or jarring the limbs is useful. In other cvs, burs open, and nuts fall
|
||
to ground. Burs which fall and do not open can be made to shed their nuts by pressure of
|
||
the feet or by striking with small wooden mallet. Some harvesters use heavy leather gloves
|
||
and twist nuts out of burs by hand. Nuts should be picked up every morning and stored in
|
||
sacks, if they are to be shipped at once. If they are to be kept for a while, they should be
|
||
piled on floor to sweat. Pile should be stirred twice a day for 2 days, and then nuts sacked.
|
||
Always store nuts so that air can circulate freely. Do not pile up sacks for any length of
|
||
time, as they will heat and mold. If stacking is necessary, place sticks between sacks for
|
||
ventilation. In gathering nuts, the collector usually has two pails or containers, one for first-
|
||
grade perfect nuts, the other for culls.
|
||
Yields and Economics — Yields average from 45 to 136 kg per tree.^^* In 60- to 80-
|
||
year-old stands in Russia, yields average 770 kg/ha, up to 1230 kg/ha in better stands.
|
||
Italy reports ca. 1100, France ca. 1500 to 2200, and Spain ca. 2800 k g /h a .In the best
|
||
years, 5,000 kg/ha are reported.^*® Nuts are marketed to a limited degree, but are mostly
|
||
locally cultivated and used.^^^
|
||
Energy — Wood and burs may be used for firewood or for the production of charcoal.
|
||
Biotic factors — European chestnut is susceptible to diseases of other chestnuts, especially
|
||
susceptible to attacks of leaf fungi.Agriculture Handbook 165"^ reports the following as
|
||
affecting C. sativa: Actinopelta dryina (leaf spot), Cronartium cerebrum (rust), Endothia
|
||
parasitica (blight), Exosporium fawcettii (canker, dieback), Marssonina ochroleuca (leaf
|
||
spot), Melanconis modonia (twig blight), Microsphaera alni (powdery mildew), Phyllactinia
|
||
corylea (powdery mildew), Phyllosticta castanea (leaf spot), Phymatotrichum omnivorum
|
||
(root rot), Phytophthora cinnamomi (root and collar rot of seedlings), Schizophyllum com
|
||
mune (sapwood rot), and Stereum versiforme. Browne^^ adds: Fungi — Armillaria mellea,
|
||
Cerrena unicolor, Daedalea quercina, Dematophora sp., Diplodina castaneae, Fistulina
|
||
hepática. Fames mastoporus, Ganoderma applanatum, G. lucidum, Ilymenochaete rubi
|
||
ginosa, Inonotus cuticularis, /. dryadeus, Laetiporus sulphureus, Microsphaera alphitoides,
|
||
Mycosphaerella castanicola, Phyllactinia guttata, Phytophthora cactorum, P. cambivora,
|
||
P. cinnamomi, P. syringae, Polyporus rubidus, P. squamosus, P. tulipiferae, Rhizinia
|
||
inflata, Rosellinia radiciperda, Sclerotinia candolleana, Stereum hirsutum. Valsa ambiens,
|
||
Verticillium alboatrum; Angiospermae — Viscum album; Coleóptera — Attelabus nitens.
|
||
Platypus cylindrus, Prionus coriareus, Xyleborus dispar; Hemiptera — Lachnus roboris,
|
||
Myzocallis castanicola, Quadraspidiotus perniciosus; Lepidoptera — Carcina quercana,
|
||
Euproctis scintillans, Lithocolletis messaniella, Pammene fasciana, Suana concolor; and
|
||
Mammalia — Dama dama, Sciurus carolinensis.
|
||
93
|
||
CASTANOSPERMUM AUSTRALE A.Cunn. et Fräs. (FABACEAE) — Moreton Bay Chest
|
||
nut, Black Bean Tree
|
||
Uses — Australian aborigines processed the seeds for food. Of its edibility, Allen and
|
||
Allen* say, “ The edibility of the roasted seed of C. australe, often equated with that of the
|
||
European chestnut, has been overestimated. Some writers rate its edibility about equal to
|
||
that of acorns, or as acceptable only under dire circumstances of need and hunger . . . The
|
||
astringency of fresh seeds is reduced or removed by soaking and roasting, although even
|
||
after such treatment ill effects are known to occur.“ * Commonly cultivated in Australia in
|
||
home gardens and as a street tree, this species is well known in the timber trade as Black
|
||
Bean. In view of the shape and configuration of the seeds, I believe “ Brown Buns” would
|
||
be more appropriate. The timber dresses well and is regarded as a heavy cabinet timber.
|
||
Before synthetics, the wood was used for electrical switchboards, because of its particularly
|
||
high resistance to the passage of electric current. The wood is also used in inlays, panels,
|
||
umbrella handles, ceilings, plywood, and carved jewel boxes. In South Africa, it is frequently
|
||
cultivated for shade and as an oramental, suitable for planting along suburban sidewalks.
|
||
Around Sydney, Australia, they have become popular as a house plant for short term
|
||
decoration.The NAS^^^ classifies this as a “ vanishing timber” , used sometimes as a
|
||
walnut substitute (750 kg/m^).
|
||
Folk medicine — Extracts have given negative antibiotic tests. According to the Threat
|
||
ened Plants Newsletter,"^"^^ 100 kg of seed were shipped to the U.S. for cancer and AIDS
|
||
research, research which is suggesting anti-AIDS activity, in vitro at least. In a letter (1987),
|
||
Dr. K. M. Snader, of the National Institutes of Health,tells me, “ I do not at this moment
|
||
know if castanospermine will become an AIDS treatment, but it is showing some activity
|
||
in our screening systems. Indeed, there is enough interest to want to look further at the
|
||
pharmacology and to explore other products with either similar structures or with the same
|
||
mechanism of action.”
|
||
Chemistry — Australian cattle fatalities are reported from grazing the fallen seed during
|
||
dry periods (mostly October to December). Unfortunately, the cattle may develop a liking
|
||
for the seed. Also, with the leaves, cattle becoming fond of them may pine away and die
|
||
if deprived of them.^^^ Seeds contain the triterpenoid castanogenin. The structure is outlined
|
||
in Hager’s Handbook. ^*^ The wood contains bay in (C2H20O9) and bayogenin. Castanospermine
|
||
94
|
||
Handbook of Nuts
|
||
is said to inhibit alpha- and beta-glucosidases, beta-xylosidase, and to inhibit syncytra
|
||
formation in HIV-infected CD4 positive cells/"^^ According to Saul et al./^® castanospermine
|
||
decreases cytoplasmic glycogen in vivo in rats, showing a dose-dependent decrease in alpha-
|
||
glucosidase activity in the liver (50% at 250 mg/kg), spleen (50% at 250), kidney (48% at
|
||
250), and brain (55% at 50 mg/kg). At doses of 2,000 mg/kg, the rats experienced diarrhea
|
||
(reversible with diet) with decreased weight gain and liver size. With the HIV, there is a
|
||
dose-dependent decrease in syncytium formation (H9 human aneuploid neoplastic cells
|
||
infected with HIV) with complete inhibition at 100 |xg/m€. Apparently, it affects the envelope
|
||
protein, not the CD4 receptor glycoprotein. At 50 p-g/mi, it inhibits the cell death of infected
|
||
cells. And there is a dose-dependent decrease in extracellular virus (a million-fold at 200
|
||
pg/ m€ ) . ^ ^ 2
|
||
Toxicity — The unpleasant purgative effects of fresh seeds and their indigestibility are
|
||
attributed to the 7% saponin content. Later writers question the presence of saponin. The
|
||
sawdust irritates the nasal mucosa.^ Brand et al.'^^ report an uninspiring 79% water, 3.2%
|
||
protein, 0.7 g fat, and 0.5 g fiber. Menninger^®^ quotes one of his sources, “ Recently 14
|
||
Air Force personnel were admitted to the hospital after being on a survival mission and
|
||
eating the seed.”
|
||
Description — Tall, glabrous, slow-growing, evergreen trees to 45 m tall, 1 to 2 m DBH.
|
||
Leaves large, imparipinnate; leaflets large, 8 to 17, glossy, short-petioled, elliptic, tapering,
|
||
leathery; stipels absent. Flowers large, orange-to-reddish yellow, in short, loose racemes in
|
||
the axils of old branches; bracts minute; braceteoles none; calyx thick, large, colored; teeth
|
||
broad, very short; standard obovate-orbicular, narrowed into a claw, recurved; wings and
|
||
keel petals shorter than the standard, free, subsimilar, erect, oblong; stamens 10, free; anthers
|
||
linear, versatile; ovary long-stalked, many-ovuled; style incurved; stigma terminal, blunt.
|
||
Pod elongated, 18 to 25 cm long, subfalcate, turgid, leathery to woody, 2-valved, valves
|
||
hard, thick, spongy inside between the 2 to 6, large, globose, chestnut-brown seeds.® Seeds
|
||
2 to 4 cm broad. Fruiting February to April in Australia.
|
||
Germplasm — Reported from the Australian Center of Diversity, Moreton Bay chestnut,
|
||
or CVS thereof, should tolerate some salt. It tolerates shade and some drought, but little frost.
|
||
(2n = 26.)
|
||
Distribution — Only of local importance in its native Australia and New Caledonia.
|
||
Native to the tablelands of northeast Australia, Queensland, and New South Wales. Intro
|
||
duced into Sri Lanka ca. 1874. Introduced and surviving as far as 35°S in Australia. Now
|
||
somewhat common in India and the East Indies. Planted as an ornamental in the warmer
|
||
and more humid parts of South Africa.
|
||
Ecology — Estimated to range from Subtropical Dry to Rain through Tropical Dry to
|
||
Wet Forest Life Zones, this species is estimated to tolerate annual precipitation of 10 to 60
|
||
dm, annual temperature of 20 to 26°C, and pH of 6.0 to 8.5. Apparently damaged by heavy
|
||
frost (but tolerating 0°C in Sydney). Usually in coastal or riverine forests. Best suited to
|
||
rich loam, it will succeed on sandy, less-fertile soils.
|
||
Cultivation — Seeds should be sown fresh and barely covered (1 to 2 cm) with soil.
|
||
They should germinate in 10 to 21 days when planted at 20 to 30°C. They can be held 6
|
||
to 8 months at 4°C.
|
||
Harvesting — For reasons not fully understood, the tree often fails to fruit where it has
|
||
been introduced as an ornamental. For example, it grows well at Singapore and Manila,
|
||
apparently without fruiting. Some West Indian introductions have fruited at ca. 20 years of
|
||
age. The seeds may be steeped in water for 8 to 10 days, then dried in the sun, roasted on
|
||
hot stones, pounded, and ground into meal.
|
||
Yields and economics — Data provided me by the National Cancer Institute (NCI) indicate
|
||
that one could obtain 100 g pure castanospermine from 1,(X)0 lb seed, suggesting yields of
|
||
0.0(X)2203% or ca. 2 ppm. Before the NCI AIDS announcement July 24, 1987, the Sigma
|
||
95
|
||
Chemical Company was offering castanospermine at $22.60 to $23.80 per mg or $89.50 to
|
||
$94.20 per 5 mg, which translates to $8 million to $10 million per pound. There is a newly
|
||
published synthesis which can produce 100 mg and four isomers for $10,000. So the price
|
||
will come down.
|
||
Energy — The wood has a density of 800 kg/m^. If the seed contains only 2 ppm
|
||
castanospermine, most of the residual biomass could be used for fuel.
|
||
Biotic factors — The timber is subject to wood-rotting fungi and to termites. The sapwood
|
||
is subject to beetle attack. Apparently omithophilous (pollinated by birds) and distributed
|
||
by water. Nodulation and rhizobia have not yet been reported.^
|
||
96 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
CEIBA PENTANDRA (L.) Gaertn. (BOMBACACEAE) — Kapok, Silk Cotton Tree
|
||
Syn: Eriodendron anfractuosum DC. and Bombax pentandrum L.
|
||
Uses — Valued as a honey plant. Young leaves are sometimes cooked as a potherb. In
|
||
the Cameroons, even the flowers are eaten. I have used the water from the superficial roots
|
||
when clean drinking water was unavailable.^® Silky fiber from pods used for stuffing pro
|
||
tective clothing, pillows, lifesavings devices; as insulation material, mainly against heat and
|
||
cold, because of its low thermal conductivity, and sound, and for caulking various items,
|
||
as canoes. Fiber contains 61 to 64% cellulose, the rest lignin and other substances, including
|
||
a toxic substance, making it resistant to vermin and mites. Wrapped around the trunk of a
|
||
fruit tree, it is supposed to discourage leaf-cutting ants. Fiber is white or yellowish, cylin
|
||
drical, each a single cell with a bulbous base, resilient, water-resistant, with buoyance
|
||
superior to that of cork. The floss, irritating to the eyes, is used to stuff life-preservers,
|
||
mattresses, pillows, saddles, etc., and it also used as tinder. In the U.S., baseballs may be
|
||
filled with kapok. Mixed with other fibers, like cotton, it is used in the manufacture of
|
||
carpets, laces, felt hats, “ cotton” , fireworks, and plushes. Fiber can be bleached or dyed
|
||
like cotton. Seeds are the source of an oil (20 to 25% in seed, about 40% in kernel), used
|
||
for illumination, for soap making, or as a lubricant. Seed oil roughly comparable to peanut
|
||
oil; used for the same purposes as refined cotton-seed oil. West Africans use the seeds,
|
||
pounded and ground to a meal, in soups, etc. Roasted seeds are eaten like peanuts. Some
|
||
people sprout the seeds before eating them. The young fruits are a vegetable like okra.
|
||
Expressed cake serves for fodder. The timber, though little used, is said to be excellent at
|
||
planing, sanding, and resistance to screw-splitting. Used for boxes, matches, toys, drums,
|
||
furniture, violins, dugouts (said to float even when capsized), and for tanning leather. Shaping
|
||
and boring qualities are poor, turning very
|
||
97
|
||
Folk medicine — According to Hartwell,Ceiba is used in folk remedies for nasal
|
||
polyps and tumors. Reported to be antidiarrheic, astringent, diuretic, emetic, and emollient,
|
||
Ceiba pentandra is a folk remedy for bowel disorders, foot ailments, female troubles,
|
||
headache, hydropsy, leprosy, neuralgia, parturition, spasm, sprain, swelling, tumors, and
|
||
wounds.^’ The Bayano Cuna use the bark in medicine for female troubles. The roots are
|
||
used in treating leprosy. A bath of a bark infusion is supposed to improve the growth of
|
||
hair (Colombia). The same infusion is given to cattle after delivery to help shed the placenta.^®
|
||
Gum used as tonic, alterative, astringent, or laxative. Young leaves are emollient. Roots
|
||
used as diuretic and against scorpion stings. Juice of roots used as a cure for diabetes.
|
||
Ayurvedics used the alexeiteric gum for blood diseases, hepatitis, obesity, pain, splenosis,
|
||
and tumors. Yunani use the leaves for boils and leprosy, the gum and/or the root for
|
||
biliousness, blood diseases, dysuria, and gonorrhea, considering them antipyretic, aphro
|
||
disiac, diuretic, fattening, and tonic. Others in India use the roots for anasarca, ascites,
|
||
aphrodisia, diarrhea, and dysentery; the taproot for gonorrhea and dysentery; the gum for
|
||
menorrhagia, and urinary incontinence in children.Malayans use the bark for asthma and
|
||
colds. Javanese mix the bark with areca, nutmeg, and sugar candy for bladder stones.
|
||
Liberians use the infusion as a mouthwash. In Singapore, leaves are mixed with onion and
|
||
turmeric in water for coughs. Javanese use the leaf infusion for catarrh, cough, hoarseness
|
||
and urethritis. Cambodians use the leaves to cure migraine and inebriation. In French Guiana,
|
||
flowers are decocted for constipation. In Reunion, the bark is used as an emetic. Annamese
|
||
also use the bark as emetic, the flowers for lochiorrhea and plague, the seed oil as an
|
||
emollient. West Indians use the leaves in baths and poultices for erysipelas, sprained or
|
||
swollen feet, and to relieve fatigue. The tea is drunk for colic and inflammation. French-
|
||
speaking West Indians take the root decoction as a diuretic. Latin Americans apply the bark
|
||
to wounds and indolent ulcers, using the inner bark decoction as antispasmodic, diuretic,
|
||
emetic, and emmenagogue, and for gonorrhea and hemorrhoids.Colombians use the leaf
|
||
decoction as a cataplasm or bath for boils, infected insect bites and the like.'®^ Nigerians
|
||
use the seed oil for rheumatism.Bark extracts show curare-like action on anesthetized cat
|
||
nerves.
|
||
Chemistry — Per 100 g, the seed is reported to contain 530 calories, 30.4 to 33.2 g
|
||
protein, 23.1 to 39.2 g fat, 21.6 to 38.3 g total carbohydrate, 1.6 to 19.6 g fiber, 6.1 to
|
||
8.2 g ash, 230 to 470 mg Ca, 970 to 1269 mg Contains little or no gossypol, the seeds
|
||
contain 20 to 25% (kernel, ca. 40%) oil. The percentages of fatty acids in the oil are oleic,
|
||
43.0; linoleic, 31.3; palmitic, 9.77; stearic, 8.0; arachidic, 1.2; and lignoceric, 0.23. Analysis
|
||
of the seed-cake gave the following values: moisture, 13.8; crude protein, 26.2; fat, 7.5;
|
||
carbohydrate, 23.2; fiber, 23.2; and ash, 6.1%; nutrient ratio, 1:1.5; food units, 107. Analysis
|
||
of a sample from Indo-China gave: nitrogen, 4.5; phosphoric acid, 1.6; potash, 1.5%.
|
||
Analysis of the wood gave: moisture, 9.8; ash, 5.9; fats and waxes, 0.62; cellulose, 68.3;
|
||
and lignone, 25.2%. The yield of bleached pulp was 30%. Destructive distillation of wood
|
||
from West Africa gave: charcoal, 28.4; crude pyroligneous acid, 43.7; tar, 12.8; and acetic
|
||
acid, 2.3%.^° The floss contains pentosans and uronic anhydrides. Root and stem bark
|
||
contain HCN. Leaves contain quercetin, camphorol, caffeic acid, and resin. Bark contains
|
||
up to 10.82% tannin.
|
||
Toxicity — The air-borne floss can induce allergy and conjunctivitis.
|
||
Description — Deciduous, umbraculiform, buttressed, armed or unarmed, medium to
|
||
large trees to 70 m tall, more often to 33 m tall, spines conical when young; branches
|
||
horizontal in whorls and prickly when young; leaves alternate, stipulate, long-petiolate,
|
||
palmately compound with 5 to 11 leaflets, these elliptic or lanceolate, acuminate, entire or
|
||
toothed, up to 16 cm long, 4 cm broad; flowers nudiflorous, numerous, in axillary dense
|
||
clusters or fascicles on pedicels 8 cm long, near ends of branches; calyx 5-lobed, 1 to 1.5
|
||
cm long, green, bell-shaped, persistent; petals 5, fleshy, forming a short tube and spreading
|
||
98 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
out to form a showy flower 5 to 6 cm in diameter; cream-colored, malodorous; stamens
|
||
united into a 5-branched column 3 to 5 cm long; ovary 5-celled; fruit a 5-valved capsule,
|
||
ellipsoid, leathery, 20 to 30 cm long, about 8 cm in diameter, filled with numerous balls
|
||
of long silky wool, each enclosing a seed; seeds black, obovoid, enveloped in copious,
|
||
shining silky hairs arising from inner walls of capsule. Flowers December to January; fruits
|
||
March to April.
|
||
Germplasm — Reported from the Indochina-Indonesia, Africa, and Middle America
|
||
Centers of Diversity, kapok, or cvs thereof, is reported to tolerate drought, high pH, heat,
|
||
insects, laterite, low pH, slope, and virus.The Indonesian cv ‘Reuzenrandoe’ (giant kapok)
|
||
bears some characteristics of the var. caribaea. “ Some authors believe in an Ameri
|
||
can/African origin of the kapok tree. If America is the sole center of origin, then the African
|
||
center is secondary. The African kapok tree is divided into the caribaea-forest type and the
|
||
caribaea-savannah type. The latter type, which has a broadly spreading crown, is planted
|
||
in market places. It is possible that this type arose from cuttings of plagiotropic branches.
|
||
Some research has gone into developing whiter floss, indehiscent pods, and spineless trunks.
|
||
Trees are quite variable in the spininess of the stem, habit of branching, color of flowers,
|
||
size of fruits, manner of fruit opening, and length, color, and resiliency of fibers of floss.
|
||
Based on these characteristics, three varieties are recognized: var. indica, Indian forms; var.
|
||
caribaea, American forms; and var. africana, African form s.(2n = 72,80,82)
|
||
Distribution — Probably native to tropical America; widely distributed in hotter parts of
|
||
western and southern India, Andaman Islands, Burma, Malaysia, Java, Indochina, and
|
||
southeast Asia, North Borneo; cultivated in Java.^^^ According to Zeven and Zhukovsky,
|
||
it was believed that the kapok tree originated in an area which was later divided by the
|
||
Atlantic Ocean, so this species is native both to America and Africa. This conclusion is
|
||
based mainly on the great variability of this plant and on the high frequency of dominant
|
||
inherited characteristics in these two continents. Another thought is that seeds may have
|
||
come from America in prehistoric times and that later introduction increased the variability.
|
||
Because of its chromosome number, a polyploid origin is suggested. If this supposition is
|
||
correct, the kapok tree can only have arisen in that area where its parents occur. As all other
|
||
Ceiba species are restricted to America, this would also indicate an American origin.
|
||
Ecology — Ranging from Subtropical Dry to Wet through Tropical Thom to Wet Forest
|
||
Life Zones, kapok is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 4.8 to 42.9 dm (mean of
|
||
134 cases = 15.2), annual temperature of 18.0 to 28.5°C (mean of 129 cases = 25.2°C),
|
||
and pH of 4.5 to 8.7 (mean of 45 cases = 6.7).^^ Hardy to Zone 10."^^^ It thrives best in
|
||
monsoon climates below 500 m altitude. Where night temperatures are below 20°C, fmits
|
||
do not set. Trees damaged by high winds and waterlogging. Requires well-drained soil, in
|
||
areas with annual rainfall of 125 to 150 cm, with abundant rainfall during the growing
|
||
season and a dry period from time of flowering until pods ripen. In Java, commonly grown
|
||
around margins of fields and along roadsides.
|
||
Cultivation — On plantations, kapok is usually propagated from seeds of high-yielding
|
||
trees. Planted in nurseries about 30 cm apart, seedlings are moved to the field when about
|
||
9 months old, topping them to 125 cm. Field spacings of about 6.5 are recommended.
|
||
Sometimes trees are propagated from cuttings.In Indonesia, cuttings are set in a nursery
|
||
for a year and then transplanted at the beginning of the rainy season. The first harvest is
|
||
usually 3 years later.
|
||
Harvesting — Since pods are usually handpicked by climbers, before they dehisce, much
|
||
hand-labor is involved. Trees begin to fruit when 3 to 6 years old. For kapok, natives harvest
|
||
the unopened pods with hooked knives on long poles. Since pods do not ripen simultaneously,
|
||
it is necessary to harvest two or three times a year, before the pods open. Fruits are sun-
|
||
dried and split open with mallets. The floss is removed with the seeds, and the seeds separated
|
||
out by beating with a stick. In Java and the Philippine Islands, machines are employed for
|
||
99
|
||
cleaning the floss. Floss is pressed into bales for export; these are generally packed in gunny
|
||
cloth, and vary in weight from 80 to 120 lbs and are 8 to 16 ft^ in volume.
|
||
Yields and economics — Trees 4 to 5 years old yield nearly a kilogram of floss, whereas
|
||
full-grown trees, 15 years old, may yield 3 to 4 kg.'^^ Some trees may bear for 60 years or
|
||
more and may yield 4,500 g kapok per year. It takes 170 to 220 pods to give a kilogram
|
||
of floss. An adult tree may produce 1000 to 4000 fruits, suggesting a potential yield of 5
|
||
to 20 kg floss per tree. If the ratios prevail in kapok that prevail in cotton, we would expect
|
||
that to correspond to 8 to 30 kg seed, or 2 to 7.5 kg oil per tree. In 1950, Indonesia produced
|
||
5,000 MT kapok, 6,500 in 1951, 6,600 in 1952, 7,000 in 1953, exporting ca. 5,000 MT
|
||
a year.Indonesia has produced as much as 16,000 MT kapok oil per year. Until World
|
||
War II, Indonesia was the major producer; Ecuador exported over 1.25 million lbs in 1938.
|
||
Today, Thailand produces about half of the 22 million kg of kapok produced, with the U.S.
|
||
the largest consumer, using about half. Other exporters include Cambodia, East Africa,
|
||
India, Indonesia, and Pakistan.
|
||
Energy — The seed oil, used for cooking, lamps, lubrication, paints, and soaps, might
|
||
serve, like the peanut, as a diesel substitute. Six trees could produce a barrel of oil renewably.
|
||
As firewood, it is of no value, as it only smoulders, but the smouldering is sometimes put
|
||
to use in fumigation.The specific gravity of the wood is 0.920 to 0.933.^^"^
|
||
Biotic factors — The following fungi attack kapok trees: Armillaria mellea, Calonectria
|
||
rigidiuscula, Camillea bomba, C. sagraena, Cercospora ceibae, C. italica, Chaetothyrium
|
||
ceibae, Coniothyrium ceibae, Corticium salmonicolor, Corynespora cassiicola, Daldinia
|
||
angolensis, Fornes applanatus, F. lignosas, F. noxius, Glomerella cingulata, Phyllosticta
|
||
eriodendri, Physalospora rhodina, Polyporus occidentalis, P. zonalis, Polystictus occiden-
|
||
talis, P. sanguineus, Pycnoporus coccincus, Ramularia eriodendri, Schizophyllum com
|
||
mune, Septoria ceibae, Thanatephorus cucumeris, Ustulina deusta, and U. zonata. The
|
||
bacterium, Xanthomonas malvacearum, also infests trees. The parasite, Dendropthoefalcata,
|
||
also occurs on the tree. The following viruses attack kapok: Cacao virus lA, 1C, and IM;
|
||
Offa Igbo (Nigeria) cacao. Swollen Shoot, and viruses of Adansonia digitata. Nematodes
|
||
isolated by kapok include: Helicotylenchus cóncavas, H. multicinctus, H. retasas, H. pseu-
|
||
dorobastus, H. dihystera, H. cavenessi, Meloidogyne arenaria, M. javanica, Pratylenchas
|
||
brachyaras, P. delattrei, Scatellonema brachyurus, S. clathricaudatum, Tylenchorhynchus
|
||
martini, Xiphinema elongatum, and X. ifacolum.^^^'^^^
|
||
Baker and Harris^^ indicate that the flowers are visited by the fruit bats, Epomorphorus
|
||
gambianas, Nanonycteris veldkamp, and Eidolon helvum. Flowers, though bat pollinated,
|
||
are visited by bees.^^ Logs and lumber very susceptible to insect attack and decay. The
|
||
wood is nearly always turned blue-gray by sap-staining fungi. This can be prevented by
|
||
dipping in a fungicide solution shortly after sawing. In addition, Browne^^ lists the following
|
||
as affecting this species: Coleóptera — Analeptes trifasciata, Aracceras fasciculatas, Ba-
|
||
tocera namitor, B. rufomaculata, Chrysochroa bicolor, Hypomeces sqaamosus, Petrognatha
|
||
gigas, Phytoscaphas triangularis, Steirastoma breve, Tragiscoschema bertolonii; Hemiptera
|
||
— Delococcas tafoenis, Helopeltis schoutedeni, Icerya nigroarcolata, Planococcoides nja-
|
||
lensis, Planococcus citri, P. kenyae, P. lilacinus, Pseudaulacaspis pentágona, Pseudococcus
|
||
adonidum, Rastrococcus iceryoides, Saissetia nigra; Lepidoptera — Anomis leona, Ascotis
|
||
selenaria, Cryptothelea varié gata, Dasy chira mendosa, Suana concolor, Sylepta derogata;
|
||
Thysanoptera — Selenothrips rubrocinctus.
|
||
100 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
COCOS NUCIFERA L. (ARECACEAE) Coconut
|
||
Uses — Coconut is one of the ten most useful trees in the world, providing food for
|
||
millions of people, especially in the tropics. At any one time a coconut palm may have 12
|
||
different crops of nuts on it, from opening flower to ripe nut. At the top of the tree is the
|
||
growing point, a bundle of tightly packed, yellow-white, cabbage-like leaves, which, if
|
||
damaged, causes the entire tree to die. If the tree can be spared, this heart makes a tasty
|
||
treat, a ‘millionaire’s salad’. Unopened flowers are protected by sheath, often used to fashion
|
||
shoes, caps, even a kind of pressed helmet for soldiers. Opened flowers provide a good
|
||
honey for bees. A clump of unopened flowers may be bound tightly together, bent over and
|
||
its tip bruised. Soon it begins to “ weep” a steady dripping of sweet juice, up to a gallon
|
||
per day, that contains 16 to 30 mg ascorbic acid per 100 g. The cloudy brown liquid is
|
||
easily boiled down to syrup, called coconut molasses, then crystallized into a dark sugar,
|
||
almost exactly like maple sugar. Sometimes it is mixed with grated coconut for candy. Left
|
||
standing, it ferments quickly into a beer with alcohol content up to 8%, called “ toddy” in
|
||
India and Sri Lanka; “ tuba” in Philippines and Mexico; and “ tuwak” in Indonesia. After
|
||
a few weeks, it becomes a vinegar. “ Arrack” is the product after distilling fermented
|
||
“ toddy” and is a common spiritous liquor consumed in the East. The net has a husk, which
|
||
is a mass of packed fibers called coir, which can be woven into strong twine or rope, and
|
||
is used for padding mattresses, upholstery, and life-preservers. Fiber, resistant to sea water,
|
||
is used for cables and rigging on ships, for making mats, rugs, bags, brooms, brushes, and
|
||
olive oil filters in Italy and Greece; also used for fires and mosquito smudges. If nut is
|
||
101
|
||
allowed to germinate, cavity fills with a spongy mass called “ bread” which is eaten raw
|
||
or toasted in the shell over the fire. Sprouting seeds may be eaten like celery. Shell is hard
|
||
and fine-grained, and may be carved into all kinds of objects, as drinking cups, dippers,
|
||
scoops, smoking pipe bowls, and collecting cups for rubber latex. Charcoal is used for
|
||
cooking fires, air filters, in gas masks, submarines, and cigarette tips. Shells burned as fuel
|
||
for copra kilns or house-fires. Coconut shell flour is used in industry as a filler in plastics.
|
||
Coconut water is produced by a 5-month-old nut, about 2 cups of crystal-clear, cool sweet
|
||
(invert sugars and sucrose) liquid, so pure and sterile that during World War II, it was used
|
||
in emergencies instead of sterile glucose solution, and put directly into a patient’s veins.
|
||
Also contains growth substances, minerals, and vitamins. Boiled toddy, known as jaggery,
|
||
with lime makes a good cement. Nutmeat of immature coconuts is like a custard in flavor
|
||
and consistency, and is eaten or scraped and squeezed through cloth to yield a “ cream” or
|
||
“ milk” used on various foods. Cooked with rice to make Panama’s famous “ arroz con
|
||
coco” ; also cooked with taro leaves or game, and used m coffee as cream. Dried, desiccated,
|
||
and shredded it is used in cakes, pies, candies, and in curries and sweets. When nuts are
|
||
open and dried, meat becomes copra, which is processed for oil, rich in glycerine and used
|
||
to make soaps, shampoos, shaving creams, toothpaste lotions, lubricants, hydraulic fluid,
|
||
paints, synthetic rubber, plastics, margarine, and in ice cream. In India, the Hindus make
|
||
a vegetarian butter called “ ghee” from coconut oil; also used in infant formulas. When
|
||
copra is heated, the clear oil separates out easily, and is made this way for home use in
|
||
producing countries where it is used in lamps. Cake residue is used as cattle fodder, as it
|
||
is rich in proteins and sugars; animals should not have more than 4 to 5 lbs per animal per
|
||
day, as butter from milk will have a tallow flavor. As the cake is deficient in calcium, it
|
||
should be fed together with calcium-rich foods. Trunk wood is used for building sheds and
|
||
other semi-permanent buildings. Outer wood is close-grained, hard, and heavy, and when
|
||
well seasoned, has an attractive dark-colored grain adaptable for carving, especially orna
|
||
mentals, under the name of “ porcupine wood” . Coconut logs should not be used for fences,
|
||
as decayed wood makes favorable breeding places for beetles. Logs are used to make rafts.
|
||
Sections of stem, after scooping out pith, are used as flumes or gutters for carrying water.
|
||
Pith of stem contains starch which may be extracted and used as flour. Pitch from top of
|
||
tree is sometimes pickled in coconut vinegar. Coconut leaves made into thin strips are woven
|
||
into clothing, furnishings, screens, and walls of temporary buildings. Stiff midribs make
|
||
cooking skewers, arrows, brooms, brushes, and used for fish traps. Leaf fiber is used in
|
||
India to make mats, slippers, and bags. Used to make short-lived torches. Coconut roots
|
||
provide a dye, a mouthwash, a medicine for dysentery, and frayed out, it makes toothbrushes;
|
||
scorched, it is used as coffee substitute. Coconut palm is useful as an ornamental; its only
|
||
drawback being the heavy nuts which may cause injury to man, beast, or rooftop when they
|
||
hit in falling.
|
||
Folk medicine — According to Hartwell,coconuts are used in folk remedies for tumors.
|
||
Reported to be anthelmintic, antidotal, antiseptic, aperient, aphrodisiac, astringent, bacter
|
||
icidal, depurative, diuretic, hemostat, pediculicide, purgative, refrigerant, stomachic, styp
|
||
tic, suppurative, and vermifuge, coconut — somewhere or other — is a folk remedy for
|
||
abscesses, alopecia, amenorrhea, asthma, blenorrhagia, bronchitis, bruises, bums, cachexia,
|
||
calculus, colds, constipation, cough, debility, dropsy, dysentery, dysmenorrhea, earache,
|
||
erysipelas, fever, flu, gingivitis, gonorrhea, hematemesis, hemoptysis, jaundice, menor
|
||
rhagia, nausea, phythisis, pregnancy, rash, scabies, scurvy, sore throat, stomach-ache,
|
||
swelling, syphilis, toothache, tuberculosis, tumors, typhoid, venereal diseases, and wounds.
|
||
Chemistry — Per 100 g, the kernel is reported to contain 36.3 g H2O, 4.5 g protein,
|
||
41.6 g fat, 13.0 g total carbohydrate, 3.6 g fiber, 1.0 g ash, 10 mg Ca, 24 mg P, 1.7 mg
|
||
Fe, and traces of beta-carotene.Per 100 g, the green nut is reported to contain 77 to 200
|
||
calories, 68.0 to 84.0 g H2O, 1.4 to 2.0 g protein, 1.9 to 17.4 g fat, 4.0 to 11.7 g total
|
||
102 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
carbohydrate, 0.4 to 3.7 g fiber, 0.7 to 0.9 g ash, 11 to 42 mg Ca, 42 to 56 mg P, 1.0 to
|
||
1.1 mg Fe, 257 mg K, trace of beta-carotene, 0.4 to 0.5 mg thiamine, 0.03 mg riboflavin,
|
||
0.8 mg niacin, and 6 to 7 mg ascorbic acid.^^ Coconut oil is one of the least variable among
|
||
vegetable fats, i.e., 0.2 to 0.5% caproic-, 5.4 to 9.5 caprylic-, 4.5 to 9.7 capric-, 44.1 to
|
||
51.3 lauric-, 13.1 to 18.5 myristic, 7.5 to 10.5 palmitic-, 1.0 to 3.2 stearic-, 0 to 1.5
|
||
arachidic-, 5.0 to 8.2 oleic-, and 1.0 to 2.6 linoleic-acids.^® Following oil extraction from
|
||
copra, the coconut cake (poonac) contains 10.0 to 13.3% moisture, 6.0 to 26.7% oil, 14.3
|
||
to 19.8% protein, 32.8 to 45.3% carbohydrates, 8.9 to 12.2% fibers, and 4.0 to 5.7% ash.
|
||
The so-called coconut water is 95.5% water, 0.1% protein, <0.1% fat, 0.4% ash, 4.0%
|
||
carbohydrate. Per 100 g water, there is 105 mg Na, 312 K, 29 Ca, 30 Mg, 0.1 Fe, 0.04
|
||
Cu, 37 P, 24 S, and 183 mg choline. Leaves contain 8.45% moisture, 4.28% ash, 0.56%
|
||
K^O, 0.25 P2O3. 0.28 CaO, and 0.57% MgO.^«
|
||
Description — Palm to 27 m or more tall, bearing crown of large pinnate leaves; trunk
|
||
stout, 30 to 45 cm in diameter, straight or slightly curved, rising from a swollen base
|
||
surrounded by a mass of roots; rarely branched, marked with rings of leaf scars; leaves 2
|
||
to 6 m long, pinnatisect, leaflets 0.6 to 1 m long, narrow, tapering; inflorescence in axil of
|
||
each leaf as spathe enclosing a spadix 1.3 to 2 m long, stout, straw- or orange-colored,
|
||
simply branched; female flowers numerous, small, sweet-scented, borne toward the top of
|
||
panicle; fruit ovoid, 3-angled, 15 to 30 cm long, containing a single seed; exocarp a thick,
|
||
fibrous husk, enclosing a hard, boney endocarp or shell. Adhering to the inside wall of the
|
||
endocarp is the testa with thick albuminous endosperm, the coconut meat; embryo below
|
||
one of the three pores at end of fruit, cavity of endosperm filled in unripe fruit with watery
|
||
fluid, the coconut water, and only partially filled when ripe. Flowers and fruits year-round
|
||
in the tropics.
|
||
Germplasm — Reported from the Indochina-Indonesia and Hindustani centers of origin,
|
||
coconut has been reported to tolerate high pH, heat, insects, laterites, low pH, poor soil,
|
||
salt, sand, and slope.Many classifications have been proposed for coconuts; none is wholly
|
||
satisfactory. Variations are based on height, tall or dwarf; color of plant or fruit; size of nut
|
||
(some palms have very large fruits, others have large numbers of small fruits); shape of
|
||
nuts, varying from globular to spindle-shaped or with definite triangular sections; thickness
|
||
of husk or shell; type of inflorescence; and time required to reach maturity. Many botanical
|
||
varieties and forms have been recognized and named, using some of the characteristics
|
||
mentioned above. Cultivars have been developed from various areas. Dwarf palms, occurring
|
||
in India as introductions from Malaysia, live about 30 to 35 years, thrive in rich soils and
|
||
wet regions, flower and fruit much earlier than tall varieties, and come into bearing by the
|
||
fourth year after planting. However, dwarf varieties are not grown commercially, and only
|
||
on a limited scale, because of their earliness and tender nuts — which yield a fair quantity
|
||
of coconut water. They are highly susceptible to diseases and are adversly affected by even
|
||
short periods of drought. Tall coconuts are commonly grown for commercial purposes, living
|
||
80 to 90 years. They are hardy, thrive under a variety of soil, climatic, and cultural conditions,
|
||
and begin to flower when about 8 to 10 years after planting. (2n = 16.)^^^
|
||
Distribution — Now pan-tropical, especially along tropical shorelines, where floating
|
||
coconuts may volunteer, the coconut’s origin is shrouded in mysteries, vigorously debated.
|
||
According to Purseglove,^^^ the center of origin of cocoid palms most closely related to
|
||
coconut is in northwestern South America. At the time of the discovery of the New World,
|
||
coconuts (as we know them today) were confined to limited areas on the Pacific coast of
|
||
Central America, and absent from the Atlantic shores of the Americas and Africa. Coconuts
|
||
drifted as far north as Norway are still capable of germination. The wide distribution of
|
||
coconut has no doubt been aided by man and marine currents as well.
|
||
Ecology — Ranging from Subtropical Dry to Wet through Tropical Very Dry to Wet
|
||
Forest Life Zones, coconut has been reported from stations with an annual precipitation of
|
||
103
|
||
7 to 42 dm (mean of 35 cases = 20.5), annual temperature of 21 to 30°C (mean of 35 cases
|
||
= 25.7°C) with 4 to 12 consecutive frost-free months, each with at least 60 mm rainfall,
|
||
and pH of 4.3 to 8.0 (mean of 27 cases = 6.0).^^
|
||
Cultivation — Propagated by seedlings raised from fully mature fruits. Seeds selected
|
||
from high-yielding stock with desirable traits. Seed-nut trees should have a straight trunk
|
||
and even growth, with closely spaced leaf-scars, short fronds, well oriented on the crown,
|
||
and short bunch stalks. The inflorescence should bear about 100 female flowers, and the
|
||
crown should have a large number of fronds and inflorescences. Seed-nuts should be medium
|
||
sized and nearly spherical in shape; long nuts usually have too much husk in relation to
|
||
kernel. Because male parent is unknown and because female parent is itself heterozygous,
|
||
seed-nuts from high-yielding palms do not necessarily reproduce the same performance in
|
||
progeny. Records are kept of fruits harvested from each mother palm, such as number of
|
||
bunches, number of nuts, weight of husked nuts, estimated weight of copra (about one-third
|
||
weight of husked nuts being considered favorable). After fully mature nuts are picked (not
|
||
allowed to fall), they are tested by shaking to listen for water within. Under-ripe or spoiled
|
||
nuts or those with no water, or with insect or disease damage are discarded. Nuts are planted
|
||
right away in nursery or stored in a cool, dry, well-ventilated shed until they can be planted.
|
||
Seeds planted in nursery facilitate selection of best to put in field, as only half will produce
|
||
a high-yielding palm for copra. Also, watering and insect control is much easier to manage
|
||
in nursery. Soil should be sandy or light loamy, free from waterlogging, but close to source
|
||
of water, and away from heavy shade. Nursery should have long raised beds 20 to 25 cm
|
||
high, separated by shallow drains to carry away excessive water. Beds should be dug and
|
||
loosened to a depth of 30 cm. Loosened soil mixed with dried or rotten leaves and ash from
|
||
burnt fresh coconut husks at a rate of 25 lbs. of husk-ash per 225 ft.^ Nuts spaced in beds
|
||
ca. 20 X 30 cm, a hectare of nursery accommodating 100,000 seed-nuts. Nuts planted
|
||
horizontally produce better seedlings than those planted vertically. The germinating eye is
|
||
placed uppermost in a shallow furrow, about 15 cm deep, and soil mounded up around, but
|
||
not completely covering them, leaving the eye exposed. Soaking nuts in water for 1 to 2
|
||
weeks before planting may benefit germination; longer periods of soaking are progressively
|
||
disadvantageous. Bright sunlight is best for growing stout sturdy seedlings. Regular watering
|
||
in the nursery is essential in dry weather. Mulching may preserve moisture and suppress
|
||
weeds. Paddy straw, woven coconut leaves, and just coconut leaves are used; however, they
|
||
might encourage termites. Potash fertilizer may help seedlings which probably do not need
|
||
other fertilizers, the nut providing most of needed nutrition. About 16 weeks after the nut
|
||
is planted, the shoot appears through the husk, and at about 30 weeks, when 3 seed-leaves
|
||
have developed, seedlings should be planted out in permanent sites. Rigorous culling of
|
||
seedlings is essential. All late germinators and very slow growers are discarded. Robust
|
||
plants, showing normal rapid growth, straight stems, broad, comparatively short, dark-green
|
||
leaves with prominent veins, spreading outward and not straight upward, and those free of
|
||
disease symptoms, are selected for planting out. Best spacing depends upon soil and terrain.
|
||
Usually 9 to 10 m on the square is used, planting 70 to 150 trees per ha; with triangular
|
||
spacing of 10 m, 115 palms per ha; and for group or bouquet planting, 3 to 6 palms planted
|
||
4 to 5 m apart. Holes 1 m wide and deep should be dug 1 to 3 months before seedlings are
|
||
transplanted. In India and Sri Lanka, 300 to 400 husks are burned in each hole, providing
|
||
4 to 5 kg ash per hole. This is mixed with topsoil. Two layers of coconut husks are put into
|
||
the bottom of the hole before filling with the topsoil-mixed ash. Muriate of potash, 1 kg
|
||
per hole, is better than ash, but increases cost of planting. The earth settles so that it will
|
||
be 15 to 30 cm below ground level when seedling is planted. In planting, soil should be
|
||
well-packed around nut, but should not cover collar of seedling, nor get into leaf axils. As
|
||
plant develops, trunk may be earthed up, until soil is flush with general ground level. Usually
|
||
7 to 8 month old seedlings are used for transplants, best done in the rainy season. In some
|
||
104 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
instances plants up to 5 years old are used, as they are more resistant to termite damage. If
|
||
older plants are used, care must be taken not to damage roots, as they are slow to recover.
|
||
In areas with only one rainy season per year, it is simpler to plant nuts in the nursery in
|
||
one rainy season, and transplant them a year later. Young plantation should be fenced to
|
||
protect plants from cattle, goats, or other wild animals. Entire areas may be fenced in. In
|
||
Sri Lanka and southern India, piles of coconut husks are placed around the tree. At the end
|
||
of the first year after transplanting, vacancies should be filled with plants of the same age
|
||
held in reserve in nursery. Also any slow-growers, or disease-damaged plants should be
|
||
replaced. During the first 3 years, seedlings should be watered during drought, at about 16
|
||
liters per tree twice a week. Keep trees clear of weeds, especially climbers. Usually a circle
|
||
1 to 2 m in radius should be weeded several times a year, the weeds left as mulch. Cover-
|
||
crops, as Centrosema pubescens, Calopogonium mucunoides, or Pueraria phaseoloides, are
|
||
used and turned under before dry season. Catch-crops such as cassava {Manihot utilissima),
|
||
and green gram {Vigna aureus) and cowpea {Vigna unguiculata), bananas and pineapples,
|
||
may be used. Sometimes bush crops, in addition to or instead of, ground covers are used
|
||
as green manures, e.g., Tephrosia Candida, Crotalaria striata, C. uraramoensis, C. ana-
|
||
gyroides — all fast growers. Gliricidia sepium and Erythrina lithosperma may be grown as
|
||
hedges or live fences, their loppings used as green manure. Usually the cheapest form of
|
||
fertilizer materials are used, consisting of 230 to 300 g N, 260 to 460 g P2O5, and 300 to
|
||
670 g K2O per palm. Lime is generally not recommended. There is no evidence that salt is
|
||
beneficial, as sometimes claimed. Coconuts can withstand a degree of salinity, about 0.6%,
|
||
which is lethal to many other crops. Needing some magnesium, the palms are extremely
|
||
sensitive to an excess. Cultivation depends on soil type, slope of land, and rainfall distri
|
||
bution. Disk-harrowing at end of moonsoon rains may be all that is necessary to control
|
||
weeds.
|
||
Harvesting — Trees begin to yield fruit in 5 to 6 years on good soils, more likely 7 to
|
||
9 years, and reach full bearing in 12 to 13 years. Fruit-set to maturity is 8 to 10 months;
|
||
12 months from setting of female flowers. Nuts must be harvested fully ripe for making
|
||
copra or desiccated coconut. For coir they are picked about one month short of maturity,
|
||
so that husks will be green. Coconuts are usually picked by human climbers, or cut by
|
||
knives attached to the end of long bamboo poles. With the pole, a man can pick some 250
|
||
palms in a day — by climbing, only 25. In some areas nuts are allowed to fall naturally
|
||
and collected regularly. Nuts are husked in the field, a good husker handling 2,000 nuts per
|
||
day. Then the nut is split (up to 10,OCX) nuts per working day). Copra may be cured by sun
|
||
drying, or by kiln-drying, or by a combination of both. Sun-drying requires 6 to 8 consecutive
|
||
days of good bright sunshine to dry meat without its spoiling. Drying reduces moisture
|
||
content from 50% to below 7%. Copra is stored in a well-ventilated, dry area. Extraction
|
||
of oil from copra is one of the oldest seed-crushing industries of the world. Coconut cake
|
||
is usually retained to feed domestic livestock. When it contains much oil, it is not fed to
|
||
milk cows, but it used as fertilizer. Desiccated coconut is just the white meat; the brown
|
||
part is peeled off. It is usually grated, then dried in driers similar to those for tea. Good
|
||
desiccated coconut should be white in color, crisp, with a fresh nutty flavor, and should
|
||
contain less than 20% moisture and 68 to 72% oil, the extracted oil containing less than
|
||
0.1% of free fatty acid, as lauric. Parings, about 12 to 15% of kernels, are dried and pressed
|
||
yielding about 55% oil, used locally for soap-making. The resulting residue “ poonac” is
|
||
used for feeding cattle. Coconut flour is made from desiccated coconut with oil removed,
|
||
and the residue dried and ground. However, it does not keep well. Coir fiber is obtained
|
||
from slightly green coconut husks by retting in slightly saline water that is changed frequently
|
||
(requires up to 10 months); then, husks are rinsed with water and fiber separated by beating
|
||
with wooden mallets. After drying, the fiber is cleaned and graded. The greater part of coir
|
||
produced in India is spun into yam, a cottage industry, and then used for mgs and ropes.
|
||
105
|
||
In Sri Lanka, most coir consists of mechanically separated mattress and bristle fiber. To
|
||
produce this, husks are soaked or retted for 1 to 4 weeks, and then crushed between iron
|
||
rollers before fibers are separated. Bristle fibers are 20 to 30 cm long; anything shorter is
|
||
sold as superior mattress fiber. In some areas, dry milling of husks, without retting, is
|
||
carried on and produces only mattress fiber. The separated pith, called bast or dust, is used
|
||
as fertilizer since the potash is not leached out. Coconuts may be stored at a temperature of
|
||
0 to 1.5°C with relative humidity of 75% or less for 1 to 2 months. In storage, they are
|
||
subject to mold, loss in weight and drying up of the nut milk. They may be held for 2 weeks
|
||
at room temperature without serious loss.'^
|
||
Yields and economics — For copra, an average of 6,000 nuts are required for 1 ton;
|
||
1,000 nuts yield 500 lbs. of copra, which yields 250 lbs. of oil. The average yield of copra
|
||
per ha is 3 to 4 tons. Under good climatic conditions, a fully productive palm produces 12
|
||
to 16 bunches of coconuts per year, each bunch with 8 to 10 nuts, or 60 to 100 nuts per
|
||
tree. Bunches ripen in about 1 year, and should yield 25 kg or more copra. For coir, 1,000
|
||
husks yield about 80 kg per year, giving about 25 kg of bristle fiber and 55 kg of mattress
|
||
fiber. Efficient pressing will yield from 100 kg of copra, approximately 62.5 kg of coconut
|
||
oil, and 35 kg coconut cake, which contains 7 to 10% oil. The factor 63% is generally used
|
||
for converting copra to oil equivalent. Yields of copra as high as 5 MT/ha have been reported,
|
||
but oil yields of 900 to 1,350 kg/ha have been reported. Pryde and Doty^^° put the average
|
||
oil yield at 1,050 kg/ha, Telek and M artin,at 600 kg/ha. World production of coconut
|
||
oil is more than 2 million tons/year, about half of which moves in international trade. Sri
|
||
Lanka, Philippine Islands, Papua, and New Guinea are the largest producers. Only about
|
||
40% of copra produced is exported, the remaining 60% processed into oil in the country of
|
||
origin. The U.S. annually imports 190 million pounds of coconut oil and more than 650
|
||
million pounds of copra; some sources state 300,000 tons copra and over 200,000 tons
|
||
coconut oil annually.
|
||
Energy — The coconut of commerce weighs 0.5 to 1.0 kg. According to Purseglove,^^^
|
||
the average number of nuts per hectare varies from 2,500 to 7,500, indicating a yield of
|
||
ca. 1,200 to 7,500 kg/ha. On the one hand, ‘Jamaica Tails’ fruits average 1.7 kg, nuts 0.7
|
||
kg, of which 50% is endosperm; on the other hand, ‘Malayan Dwarfs’ fruits average 1.1
|
||
kg, the nut 0.6 kg, yielding 0.2 kg copra (6,000 nuts per ton copra). Average production
|
||
yields of copra (3 to 8 nuts per kg copra) range from 200 kg/ha in Polynesia to 1,200 kg/ha
|
||
in the Philippines, suggesting coconut yields of 1,000 to 8,000 kg/ha. Since about 60% of
|
||
this constitutes the inedible fruit husk and seed husks, I estimate the chaff factor at 0.6.
|
||
Coconut oil, cracked at high temperatures, will yield nearly 50% motor fuel and diesel fuel.
|
||
Coconut destructive distillation is reported to yield 11.5% charcoal, 11% fuel gas, 37.5%
|
||
copra spirit, 12.5% olein distillate, 1% crude acetate, 0.15% glycerol, and 0.85% acetone
|
||
plus methanol.^® As of June 15, 1981, coconut oil was $0.275/lb., compared to $0.38 for
|
||
peanut oil, $1.39 for poppy seed oil, $0.65 for tung oil, $0.33 for linseed oil, $0,265 for
|
||
cotton-seed oil, $0,232 for com oil, and $0.21 for soybean oil.^^^ At $2.00 per gallon,
|
||
gasoline is roughly $0.25/lb. Quick^^"^ tested linseed oil (Iodine number 180) which cokes
|
||
up fuel injectors inless than 20 hr: and rapeseed oil (Iodine number ca.lOO) which logs into
|
||
the hundreds of hours before the onset of severe injector coking. Coconut oil (Iodine number
|
||
10) should be a very good candidate from this viewpoint. This could be very important in
|
||
developing tropical countries where diesel fuel is scarce and often more expensive than
|
||
coconut oil. One Australian patent suggests that distillation of coconuts at 550° gave 11.5%
|
||
charcoal, 11% fuel gas, and 37.5% copra spirit, 12.5% olein distillate, 12.5% black oil,
|
||
1% cmde acetic acid, 0.15% glycerol, and 0.85% (acetone + methanol) which natural
|
||
fermentation takes to 2.7-5.8% ethanol. Of course, you can’t have your coconut toddy and
|
||
eat or drink or bum it too.®^
|
||
Biotic factors — Coconuts are subject to numerous fungal diseases, bacterial infections,
|
||
106 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
and the most serious virus-like disease, cadang-cadang.‘^‘ Coconut trees are also attacked
|
||
by numerous nematodes and some insect pests, the most damaging insect being the black
|
||
beetle or rhinoceros beetle {Oryctes rhinoceros), which damages buds, thus reducing nut
|
||
yield, and breeds in decaying refuse. Diseases and pests of a particular area should be
|
||
considered and a local agent consulted as to how to deal with them. Agriculture Handbook
|
||
No. 165"^ lists the following as affecting this species: Aphelenchoides cocophilus (red ring
|
||
disease), Cephalosporium lecanii, Diplodia epicocos, Endocalyx melanoxanthanus, Endo-
|
||
conidiophora paradoxa (leaf-bitten disease, leaf scorch, stem-bleeding), Gloeosporium sp.,
|
||
Pellicularia koleroga (thread blight), Pestalotia palmarum (gray leaf spot, leaf-break), Phom-
|
||
opsis cocoes (on nuts), Phyllosticta sp. (on leaves), Physalospora fusca (on leaves), P.
|
||
rhodina (on roots and trunk), Phytopthora palmivora (bud rot, leaf drop, wilt), Pythium sp.
|
||
(wilt). Stevenson^^® adds: Aschersonia cubensis, Aschersonia turbinata, Botryosphaeria
|
||
quercuum, Cytospora palmicola, Escherichia coli, Flammula earlei, Herpotrichia schied-
|
||
ermayeriana, Hypocrea rufa, Marasmius sacchari, Pestalotia gibberosa, Pestalotia versi^
|
||
cola, Polyporus lignosus, Polyporus nivosellus, Polyporus zonalis, Rosellinia saintcruciana,
|
||
Thielaviopsis paradoxa, Valsa chlorina.
|
||
107
|
||
COLA ACUMINATA (Beauv.) Schott and Endl. (STERCULIACEAE) — Kola Nuts, Cola,
|
||
Guru
|
||
Syn: Sterculia acuminata Beauv.
|
||
Uses — Widely used as a flavor ingredient in cola beverages, but has also been used in
|
||
baked goods, candy, frozen dairy deserts, gelatins, and puddings. Kola plays an important
|
||
role in the social and religious life of Africans. Beverage made by boiling powdered seeds
|
||
in water, equal in flavor and nutriment to cocoa. Seeds also used as a condiment. Dye
|
||
utilized from red juice. Wood valuable, light in color, porous, and used in ship-building
|
||
and general carpentry. Tree often planted as o rn am e n ta l.C o la is said to render putrid
|
||
water palatable.®^
|
||
Folk medicine — According to Hartwell,the powdered bark is used for malignant
|
||
tumors and cancer. The tea made from the root is said to alleviate cancer. Reported to be
|
||
aphrodisiac, cardiotonic, CNS-stimulant, digestive, diuretic, stimulant, and tonic, kola is a
|
||
folk remedy for cancer, hunger, nerves, and tumors.Nuts used as diuretic, heart tonic and
|
||
masticatory to resist fatigue, hunger and thirst. A small piece of nut is chewed by Africans
|
||
before mealtime to improve digestion. On the other hand, it is chewed as a stimulant and
|
||
appetite depressant, e.g., during religious fasts. Jamaicans take grated seed for diarrhea.
|
||
Powdered cola is applied to cuts and wounds.Formerly used as a CNS-stimulant and for
|
||
diarrhea, migraine, and neuralgia. The fresh drug is used, especially in its native country,
|
||
as a stimulant, social drug, being mildly euphoric.
|
||
Chemistry — Per 100 g, the fruit (ZMB) is reported to contain 399 calories, 5.9 g protein,
|
||
1.1 g fat, 90.8 g total carbohydrate, 3.8 g fiber, 2.2 g ash, 156 mg Ca, 232 mg P, 5.4 mg
|
||
Fe, 67 |xg beta-carotene equivalent, 0.08 mg thiamine, 0.08 mg riboflavin, 1.62 mg niacin,
|
||
and 146 mg ascorbic acid. The aril (ZMB) is reported to contain 371 calories, 9.0 g protein,
|
||
3.6 g fat, 86.2 g total carbohydrate, 4.8 g fiber, 1.2 g ash, 18 mg Ca, 102 mg P, 8.4 mg
|
||
Fe, 180 |xg beta-carotene equivalent, 0.06 mg thiamine, 0.30 mg riboflavin, 4.19 mg niacin,
|
||
and 60 mg ascorbic acid.®’ Contains 1.28 to 3% of fixed oil.^^^ Kola nut important for its
|
||
108 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
caffeine content and flavor; caffeine content 2.4 to 2.6%. Nuts also contain theobromine
|
||
(<0.1%) and other alkaloids, and narcotic properties. Seeds also contain betaine, starch,
|
||
tannic acid, catechin, epicatechin, fatty matter, sugar and a fat-decomposing enzyme. From
|
||
a bromatological point of view, cola fruits contain, per 100 g, 148 calories, 62.9% water,
|
||
2.2 % protein, 0.4% fat, 33.7% carbohydrates, 1.4% fiber, 0.8% ash, 58 mg Ca, 25 mg
|
||
carotene, 0.03 mg thiamine, 0.03 mg niacin, 0.54 mg riboflavin, and 60 mg ascorbic acid.
|
||
Hager’s Handbook suggests 1.5 to 2% caffeine, up to 0.1% theobromine, 0.3 to 0.4% d -
|
||
catechin, 0.25% betaine, 6.7% protein, 2.9% sugar, 34% starch, 3% gum, 0.5% fat, 29%
|
||
cellulose, and 12% water.
|
||
Toxicity — Caffeine in large doses is reported to be carcinogenic, mutagenic, and ter
|
||
atogenic.^^® Caffeine is also viricidal, suppressing the growth of polio, influenza, herpes
|
||
simplex, and vaccinia viruses, but not Japanese encephalitis virus, Newcastle disease, virus,
|
||
and type 2 adenovirus.Tyler^^^ produces a chart comparing various caffeine sources to
|
||
which I have added rounded figures from Palotti.^"^^
|
||
Source Caffeine
|
||
content (mg)
|
||
Cup (6 oz.) expresso coffee
|
||
310
|
||
Cup (6 oz.) boiled coffee 100
|
||
Cup (6 oz.) instant coffee 65
|
||
Cup (6 oz.) tea 10— 50
|
||
Cup (6 oz.) cocoa 13
|
||
Can (6 oz.) cola 25
|
||
Can (6 oz.) Coca Cola 20
|
||
Cup (6 oz.) mate 25— 50
|
||
Can (6 oz.) Pepsi Cola 10
|
||
Tablet caffeine 100—200
|
||
Tablet (800 mg) Zoom (Paullinia cupana) 60
|
||
In humans, caffeine 1,3,7-trimethylxanthine, is demethylated into three primary metabolites:
|
||
theophylline, theobromine, and paraxanthine. Since the early part of the 20th century,
|
||
theophylline has been used in therapeutics for bronchodilation, for acute ventricular failure,
|
||
and for long-term control of bronchial asthma. At 100 mg/kg, theophylline is fetotoxic to
|
||
rats, but no teratogenic abnormalities were noted. In therapeutics, theobromine has been
|
||
used as a diuretic, as a cardiac stimulant, and for dilation of arteries. But at 100 mg,
|
||
theobromine is fetotoxic and teratogenic.^^ Leung‘S® reports a fatal dose in man at 10,000
|
||
mg, with 1,000 mg or more capable of inducing headache, nausea, insomnia, restlessness,
|
||
excitement, mild delirium, muscle tremor, tachycardia, and extrasystoles. Leung also adds
|
||
“ caffeine has been reported to have many other activities including mutagenic, teratogenic,
|
||
and carcinogenic activities; . . . to cause temporary increase in intraocular pressure, to have
|
||
calming effects on hyperkinetic children . . . to cause chronic recurring headache . . . ” ^^®
|
||
Description — Long-lived evergreen tree, up to 14 m tall, resembling an apple tree; bark
|
||
smooth, green, thick, fissured in old trees. Leaves alternate, on petioles 2.5 to 7.5 cm long;
|
||
young leaves pubescent, often once or twice cut near base about half-way to midrib; mature
|
||
leaves 16 to 20 cm long, 2.5 to 5 cm broad, leathery, obovate, acute and long-acuminate,
|
||
with prominent veins below, margin entire, dark-green on upper surface. Flowers yellow,
|
||
numerous, unisexual or bisexual, 15 or more in axillary or terminal panicles, no petals;
|
||
calyx petaloid, greenish-yellow or white, purple at edges, tube green, limb 5-cleft, lobes
|
||
ovate-lanceolate; male flower with slender column, shorter than calyx, bearing a ring of 10
|
||
2-lobed anthers, the anthers divergent; perfect flowers with subsessile anthers in a ring,
|
||
ovary 5-lobed, 5-celled, stellate pilose, with 5 linear, re-flexed, superposed styles; ovules
|
||
anatropous, attached in a double row to the ventral surface of each carpel. Fruit oblong,
|
||
obtuse, rostrate, warty coriaceous to woody, 5 to 17 cm long, 5 to 7.5 cm thick, brown
|
||
109
|
||
resembling alligator skin, pericarp thick, fibrous, cells filled with resinous colored matter
|
||
used as dye. Seeds 5 to 12 per fruit, 2.5 to 5 cm long, 1.3 cm thick, yellow, soft, internally
|
||
whitish, pinkish or purple, brown when dry; cotyledons often 3, flatly ovate or auriculate,
|
||
cells containing starch and albuminous material. Flowers December to February, and May
|
||
to July; fruits May to June, and October to November.
|
||
Germplasm — Reported from the African Center of Diversity, kola, or cvs thereof, is
|
||
reported to tolerate low pH, shade, and slope. (2n = 40.)*^
|
||
Distribution — Native and cultivated along west coast of tropical Africa, now cultivated
|
||
pantropically from 10°N to 5°S latitude, especially in West Indies, South America, Sri
|
||
Lanka, and Malaya. Occurs naturally in forests from Togo and southern Nigeria eastward
|
||
and southward to Gabon, Congo, and Angola. Extensively planted in Nigeria.
|
||
Ecology — Ranging from Subtropical Dry to Wet through Tropical Dry to Wet Forest
|
||
Life Zones, kola is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 6.4 to 40.3 dm (mean of 12
|
||
cases = 19.8), annual temperature of 21.3 to 26.6°C (mean of 12 cases = 25.2), and pH
|
||
of 4.5 to 8.0 (mean of 7 cases = 5.5).^^ Thrives in tropical areas where mean annual
|
||
temperatures are uniformly 21 to 27°C, moist, with 2(X) to 225 cm rainfall, mostly at sea
|
||
level to 3(X) m altitude. Frequently forms forests in coastal areas. Requires a rich, well-
|
||
drained soil, but will grow on deep sandy loams in West Indies, with high organic content.
|
||
Cultivation — Propagated from seed, which must be sown perfectly fresh. Seeds planted
|
||
singly in pots and young trees kept growing until needed for permanent planting. Only light
|
||
shade, if any, is required after trees are 3 years old. Planting distances about 6 to 8 m each
|
||
way, equalling about 270 trees per ha. Cultivation very easy. Trees respond to fertilizers,
|
||
and produce highest yields only when weeds are kept controlled. Propagation also by cuttings
|
||
of softwood or ripe wood, using bottom heat.^^^^^®
|
||
Harvesting — Trees begin to flower 5 to 10 years after planting, reaching full production
|
||
by the 20th year, continuing to bear for 70 to 100 years. In many regions, trees flower and
|
||
fruit throughout the year, but usually two peak crops are produced in May and June and
|
||
again in October and November. Fruits require about 4 to 5 months to mature. Harvest when
|
||
pods turn chocolate-brown and begin to dehisce. Pods are shaken from tree and immediately
|
||
gathered. Seeds removed from pods and first coat cut off, leaving bare cotyledons. Nuts
|
||
are then carefully graded. Fresh kola nuts tend to mold and spoil easily. Nuts packed and
|
||
transported for local consumption is homemade baskets lined with leaves and wrapped in
|
||
canvas or hide to prevent drying out. Kola nuts imported by the U.S. are split in half,
|
||
sundried, and shipped in bags. Entire seeds are kola nuts of native consumer; kola nuts of
|
||
commerce are the separated, dried cotyledons only.^^®
|
||
Yields and economics — After 10 years, kola trees may be expected to yield 400 to 500
|
||
(to 800) pods annually, this being equivalent to 40 to 50 (to 80) lbs of dried nuts.‘^^^^®
|
||
Purseglove^^^ reports ca. 575 kg/ha salable nuts. Within the tropics, trade of this nut is
|
||
immense. In West Tropical Africa, kola nut ranks second to the oil-palm {Elaeis), with
|
||
exports over 16 million lbs per year. Although most kola nuts are harvested from wild trees
|
||
in West Africa coastal areas, the U.S. imports most of its kola nuts from Jamaica, about
|
||
170 tons per year.^^^
|
||
Energy — Husks, prunings, and fallen leaves can be used for energy production.
|
||
Biotic Factors — Poor yields some years have been attributed to poor pollination. Fungi
|
||
known to attack kola trees include: Botryodiplodia theobromae, Calonectria rigidiuscula,
|
||
Cephaleuros mycoidea, Fomes lignosus, F. noxius, Marasmius byssicola, M. scandens, and
|
||
Pleurotus colae
|
||
110 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
COLA NITIDA (Vent.) Schott and Endlicher (STERCULIACEAE) — Gbanja Kola
|
||
Uses — Kola possesses the central stimulating principle of caffeine. This species is more
|
||
valued than C. acuminata as it contains more caffeine. Nuts are used in West Africa to
|
||
sustain people during long journeys or long hours of work. Kola, Cola, or Kola-nuts is the
|
||
dried cotyledon of Cola nitida, or of some other species of Cola. In the U.S., the kola-nut
|
||
is used in the manufacture of nonalcoholic beverages. The tree is valued for its wood, which
|
||
is whitish, sometimes slightly pinkish when fresh; the heartwood is dull yellowish-brown
|
||
to reddish-tinged. Wood is suitable for carpentry and some construction work as house
|
||
building, furniture, and boat-building. Wooden platters, domestic utensils, and images are
|
||
often carved from the wood. Sometimes trees are planted for ornamental purposes.
|
||
Folk medicine — Reported to be astringent, nervine, poison, restorative, sedative, stim
|
||
ulant, stomachic, and tonic, gbanja kola is a folk remedy for digestion, dysentery, exhaustion,
|
||
hunger, malaria, nausea, and toothache.^* Dried cotyledons are nervine, stimulant, tonic,
|
||
and astringent.The seeds are used by natives as a stimulant; when chewed, nuts increase
|
||
powers of endurance of the chewer.^^’^^®
|
||
Chemistry — Speaking generically, Hager’s Handbook*®^ stated that the nuts contain 1.5
|
||
to 2% caffeine, a compound the Germans call colarot (= ?cola red) Ci4Hi3(OH)5, and glucose.
|
||
Colarot splits into phloroglucin and a reddish dye. Also contains up to 0.1% theobromine,
|
||
0.3 to 0.4% D-catechin (C15H14O) (“ colatine” ), L-epicatechin, essential and fatty oils,
|
||
colalipase, colaoxydase, a tannic glycoside, 0.25% betaine, 6.7% protein, 2.9% sugar, 34%
|
||
starch, 3% gum, 0.5% fat, 29% cellulose, 12% water, and procyanidin (C3oH260i2).^®^ The
|
||
glucoside kolanin is a heart stimulant.
|
||
Description — Trees 13 to 20 m tall, with dense crown, the branches and leaves nearly
|
||
touching the ground. Leaves alternate, 7.5 cm or more long, broadly lanceolate, sharply
|
||
acuminate, leathery. Flowers yellowish-white, sometimes with red stripes or blotches; fruits
|
||
2 in a cluster, covered with a thick green wrinkled coat, each fruit containing 6 to 10 or
|
||
more nuts; nuts usually red or pink, sometimes white. Fruits commonly longitudinally rugose
|
||
and wrinkled, nodular to some degree and dorsally keeled; seed separable into only two
|
||
cotyledons (C. baileyi Cornu, from West Equatorial Africa, has 6 cotyledons with very little
|
||
caffeine.) Flowers and fruits in spring and autumn, with two harvests. The main cola season
|
||
in West Africa is from October to February.
|
||
Germplasm — Reported from the African Center of Diversity, gbanja kola, or cvs thereof,
|
||
is reported to tolerate low pH, shade, slope, and virus.Chevalier has divided C. nitida
|
||
into four subspecies: rubra, alba, mixta, and pallida. C. nitida subsp. rubra Chev., wild
|
||
in Ivory Coast and Ashanti, has nuts larger than those of the cultivated plants and is the
|
||
common cultivated kola of Ashanti; subsp. rubra Chev., from the Ivory Coast, is a distinct
|
||
race based on characters other than those of color of the seeds; subsp. mixta Chev., known
|
||
only in cultivation, has red and white nuts on the same tree, and sometimes on the same
|
||
follicle; and subsp. alba Chev., also only known in cultivation, has only white seeds. There
|
||
is much variation in other characteristics, as size of fruits and nuts and flavor. (2n =
|
||
4 0 ) 82.278
|
||
Distribution — Native to West Africa from Sierra Leone to the Congo. Introduced to
|
||
East Africa, Sri Lanka, Singapore, Indonesia, Brazil, and West Indies, particularly ] 2l-
|
||
maica.^®^’^^®
|
||
Ecology — Ranging from Subtropical Moist to Wet through Tropical Dry to Moist Forest
|
||
Life Zones, gbanja kola is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 13.6 to 27.8 dm (mean
|
||
of 6 cases = 22.0), annual temperature of 23.3 to 26.6°C (mean of 6 cases = 25.4°C),
|
||
and pH of 4.5 to 5.3 (mean of 4 cases = 4.9).®^ Kola trees flourish where the mean annual
|
||
temperature is between 20 to 26°C and the annual rainfall is 250 cm or more. It is found
|
||
at low altitudes ranging up to several meters above sea-level. Thrives in deep sandy loam
|
||
with much humus.
|
||
I l l
|
||
Cultivation — Propagation is by seeds (usual), cuttings, air-layering, or grafting. Seeds
|
||
are planted in seed-beds in well-prepared soil containing much humus. Seedlings are planted
|
||
in rows 6.6 m apart each way. Trees respond to fertilizers and produce the highest yields
|
||
only when weeds are cut back regularly. Best crops obtained on soils that are deep, sandy,
|
||
and with a high content of organic matter. Plantain or other plant is used as shade for the
|
||
first year or two. Cassava is a catch-crop for the tree until it gets large enough to bear fruits.
|
||
Trees may also be propagated vegetatively from cuttings. Terminal cuttings set without any
|
||
hormones retain their leaves and start callusing within 3 to 4 weeks after setting. The roots
|
||
usually appear at an acute angle from the callus. New flush growth on the rooted cuttings
|
||
starts at about the third month after potting and is commonly slow. Most cuttings flower
|
||
the first year of growth. Cuttings set out in the field grow rapidly and flower and fruit within
|
||
three years. When propagated by air-layering, about 98% of all branches treated are heavily
|
||
callused within 3 to 4 weeks; within 6 weeks, most branches have developed roots 5 to 8
|
||
cm long. About 95% of all marcots become established satisfactorily in the field. Those
|
||
obtained from mature, already fruiting trees, flowered in 6 to 7 months after cutting them
|
||
from the mother plant, or 3 to 4 months after transplanting. Propagation by budding is
|
||
successful at all times of the year, with the highest bud-take from patch or flute budding
|
||
techniques obtained between January and April, the lowest between September and Decem
|
||
ber.
|
||
Harvesting — Kola trees produce two crops per year; in Jamaica, pods ripen in May and
|
||
June and again in October-November; in West Africa, the main crop is harvested from
|
||
October to February. The chocolate brown pods, which range in size from 5 to 10 cm long,
|
||
are shaken from the tree and gathered immediately, or are cut off by tree-climbers with
|
||
knives on long sticks. Harvesters climbing trees are occasionally attacked by ants. The seeds
|
||
are removed from the pods and the outer coat is cut off, exposing the bare cotyledons. These
|
||
are carefully graded inasmuch as only sound cotyledons do not deteriorate quickly. Fresh
|
||
kola-nuts tend to mold and spoil rather easily. They must be taken to market quickly for
|
||
local consumption. Kola-nuts of commerce are freed from the white covering, usually after
|
||
soaking or by fermentation in broad leaves. Occasionally, the nuts are buried to keep them
|
||
sound for a favorable market; in the equatorial regions, it is done in ant hills. The main
|
||
trade is in good-sized nuts. Packing is done in baskets along with broad leaves, and with
|
||
occasional moistening, the nuts can be transported for a month, free from mold. Kola-nuts
|
||
prepared for shipment to the U.S. are split in half, sun-dried, and shipped in bags. They
|
||
are usually soaked in water for 2 to 3 hr and the juice thrown off. For export to Europe,
|
||
peat is recommended as a packing material suitable for all conditions of temperature, and
|
||
the nuts, which are mainly used for drugs and wine, are shipped in the dry condition.
|
||
Yields and economics — Depending on how they are propagated, trees begin to bear
|
||
fruit in 4 to 5 years and reach full production in 10 to 15 years, or begin in 7 to 9 years
|
||
and reach maturity in 15 to 20 years. Then they continue to bear good crops of fruits for
|
||
50 years or more. Usually after a tree is 10 years old, it may be expected to yield, in two
|
||
harvests, about 56 kg of dried nuts per year.^^^ Speaking generically, Purseglove^^^ notes
|
||
that of nearly 250 trees in Nigeria, ca. 20% gave no yield at all, ca. 60% gave mean annual
|
||
yields up to 300 nuts, while 20% produced 72% of the total yield of the plot. The average
|
||
was 210 nuts per tree, the 10 best trees averaging 1,415 nuts, while the best yielded 2,209
|
||
nuts per year. With an average 60 nuts per kilogram, that is more than 36 kg for the big
|
||
yielder. Purseglove concludes there are an average 210 salable nuts per tree, or ca. 575
|
||
kg/ha.^^^ Although most kola-nuts are harvested from wild trees of the West African coast,
|
||
the U.S. imports most of its kola-nuts from Jamiaca. In the U.S., most kola-nuts are used
|
||
for manufacturing nonalcoholic beverages.
|
||
Energy — Husks, prunings, and fallen leaves can be used for energy production.
|
||
Biotic factors — Self-pollinated trees produce only white fruits (white-colored nuts bring
|
||
112 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
the highest prices); the production of colored (red or pink) nuts may therefore be due to
|
||
cross-pollination. The following fungi have been reported on this species of kolanut: Au-
|
||
ricularia delicata, Botryodiplodia theobromae, Corticium koleroga, Fomes lignosis, F.
|
||
noxius, Graphium rhodophaeum, Irenopsis coliicola, Marasmius equicrinus, M. scandens,
|
||
Nectria delbata, Phaeobotryosphaeria plicatula; twig blight, root rot, and thread blight.
|
||
Nematodes isolated from this tree include the following species: Helicotylenchus cavenessi,
|
||
H. pseudorobustus, Scutellonema clathricaudatum, and Xiphinema sp. Insect pests include
|
||
borers, cola weevils (Balanogastris kolae), and larvae of the moth Characoma. Trees are
|
||
also attacked by pests found on cocoa, as the caspid Sahlbergella singularis and by Me-
|
||
sohomotoma tessmanii.^^^'^''^
|
||
113
|
||
COLA VERTICILLATA (Thonn.) Stapf ex A.Chev. (STERCULIACEAE) — Owe Cola,
|
||
Slippery Cola, Mucilage Cola
|
||
Syn.: C ola jo h n so n ii Stapf. and S tercu lia verticillata Thonn.
|
||
Uses — Seeds, indistinguishable from true cola in appearance, are edible, though very
|
||
bitter and considered unfit to eat.^^^ Nuts are used to make a beverage. In some districts,
|
||
the people gather the fruit, or at least chew it where found; in others, they usually regard
|
||
it as a “ monkey kola” . Wood of the tree is white and hard, and is used in S. Nigeria to
|
||
make fetish images.
|
||
Folk medicine — Containing caffeine, this species no doubt shares some pharmacological
|
||
properties and folk uses with other Cola species.
|
||
Chemistry — Nuts contain a fair proportion of caffeine.
|
||
Description — Trees large, 8 to 10(to 25) m tall; branches sparsely puberulent, rarely
|
||
cylindrical, brownish dark-red, often weeping. Leaves verticillate in threes or fours, opposite
|
||
in the lower nodes, simple, entire, subcoriaceous to coriaceous; stipules 5 to 6 mm long,
|
||
puberulent on lower surface; petiole 2 to 6 mm long, sparsely puberulent; blades obovate-
|
||
elliptic, oblong or oblanceolate, cuneate at base, attenuate to apex, 12 to 25 cm long, 3 to
|
||
9 cm broad, glabrous, subcoriaceous, green on upper surface, puberulent and brownish dark-
|
||
red beneath; secondary veins in 5 to 8 pairs, ascending. Panicles axillary, isolated in groups
|
||
of 2 to 3; flowers small, 1 to 3 cm long, puberulent; bracts oval, cuspidate, concave, about
|
||
6 mm long, more or less persistent; calyx 5- to 8-lobed, densely puberulent on external
|
||
surface, sparsely so on inner surface; male flowers on pedicels 3 to 7 mm long, articulate
|
||
at summit, puberulent, calyx 4 to 5(to 8) mm long with 5 to 6 lobes longer than the tube;
|
||
androphore 1 mm long, puberulent, corona of stamens in 2 verticels, female flowers and
|
||
perfect flowers on pedicels 12 mm long, articulate near the summit, with 5 to 7 lobes about
|
||
7 mm long; ovary with 5 carpels in 2 tiers of 4 ovules. Fruit on pedicels 3 to 4 cm long;
|
||
follicles subsessile, oblong, up to 20 cm long, 9 cm broad, with short beak, obtuse, and
|
||
more or less recurved, glabrous. Seeds 4 to 9, sometimes up to 12 per follicle, ovoid-elliptic,
|
||
3 mm long, 2 cm broad, either red or white, with 3 to 4 cotyledons.
|
||
Germplasm — Reported from the African Center of Diversity, owe kola, or cvs thereof,
|
||
is reported to tolerate shade, slope, and virus. (2n = 40.)®^
|
||
Distribution — Native to Tropical West Africa from Ivory Coast and Ashanti to Ca-
|
||
meroons and Lower Congo; planted in N. Nigeria and elsewhere, but nowhere much cul
|
||
tivated. Some cultivation in Nigeria, Cameroons, Ghana, Dahomey, Gabon, and Cabinda.
|
||
Often found in planting of C. nítida. The only kola found on the Mambilla Plateau in
|
||
Northern Nigeria.
|
||
Ecology — Ranging from Subtropical Moist through Tropical Dry to Moist Forest Life
|
||
Zones, owe kola is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 13.6 to 22.3 dm (mean of 3
|
||
cases = 17.7), annual temperature of 23.5 to 26.4°C (mean of 3 cases = 17.7°C), and pH
|
||
of 4.8 to 5.0 (mean of 2 cases = 4.9).®^ Indigenous to damp forests of the tropical zone,
|
||
especially in swamps and by streams; requiring the jungle-type habitat. Often planted in
|
||
villages.
|
||
Cultivation — Most trees are self-seeded in humid forests of tropical West Africa.
|
||
Propagated by seed planted in site where desired. No special care given after tree is estab
|
||
lished.
|
||
Harvesting — Fruits are gathered from trees in the wild in some districts. Occasionally
|
||
trees are planted in villages; fruits are collected when ripe to make beverages.^^®
|
||
Yields and economics — A fruit of minor importance in area of adapation, used mostly
|
||
by natives as a source of caffeine, for a beverage, and for wood.^^®
|
||
Energy — Husks, prunings, and fallen leaves can be used for energy production.
|
||
Biotic factors — The fungus Irenopsis aburiensis has been reported on this tree. No
|
||
serious pests are reported.
|
||
114 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
CORDEAUXIA EDULIS Hemsl. (CAESALPINIACEAE) — Yeheb Nut
|
||
Uses — Seeds said to be edible raw or cooked, likened by one author to a chestnut, by
|
||
another to a cash ew .M u ch relished by the Somalians, often preferred to the usual diet
|
||
of rice and dates. The leaves are infused to make a tea. Leaves, eagerly grazed by livestock,
|
||
contain a brilliant red dye that will stain the hands, even the bones of goats who eat it.
|
||
Somalians use the magenta-red coloring matter to stain textiles.
|
||
Folk medicine — No data available.
|
||
Chemistry — Per 100 g, the seed (ZMB) contains 448 calories, 12.1 g protein, 13.5 g
|
||
fat, 71.9 g total carbohydrate, 1.6 g fiber, 2.5 g ash, 36 mg Ca, 208 mg P, and 7.2 mg
|
||
Fe. The NAS (1979) reports 37% starch, 24% sugar, 13% protein, and 11% fat. The protein
|
||
contains amino acids in proportions similar to other pulses, deficient in m ethionine.M iege
|
||
and Miege^*^ report 10.8 g arginine, 3.5 g histamine, 3.9 isoleucine, 6.4 g leucine, 6.8 g
|
||
lysine, 0.7 g methionine, 3.9 g phenylalanine, 3.6 g threonine, 4.8 g valine, 1.9 g tyrosine,
|
||
0.6 g cystine, 9.1 g asparagine, 23.8 g glutamine, 3.9 g serine, 6.6 g prolamine, 4.9 g
|
||
glycine, and 4.5 g alanine per 100 g protein. The albumins have trypsin inhibitors, the
|
||
globulins nearly 10 times as much. Phytohemagglutinins, alkaloids, or glucosides are said
|
||
to be absent.^ The red stain is due to cordeauxione, the only naphthoquinone found in
|
||
legumes.
|
||
Description — Dwarf multistemmed evergreen shrub to 3 m tall; lower branches dense,
|
||
straight, broomlike, hard. Leaves paripinnate; leaflets usually oval-oblong, 4-paired, leath
|
||
ery, dotted below with reddish, scale-like glands; stipules none. Flowers few, yellow, in
|
||
apical corymbs; calyx short; lobes 5, blunt, valvate, glandular; petals 5, subequal, clawed,
|
||
spoon-shaped; stamens 10, free; filaments hairy below; anthers versatile; ovary short-stalked,
|
||
2-ovuled, densely glandular; stigma obtuse. Pod leathery, compressed-ovoid, curved, apex
|
||
115
|
||
beaked, 2-valved, dehiscent, 1 to 4 seeded, seeds ovoid, endosperm lacking, cotyledons
|
||
thick.® Germination epigeal, the eophylls 1 to 8-foliolate, the first eophylls often opposite.
|
||
Germplasm — Reported from the Ethiopian Center of Diversity, yeheb, or cvs thereof,
|
||
is reported to tolerate drought, high pH, poor red sandy soils, sand, and savanna.
|
||
Distribution — Endemic to Somalia, Malawi, and Ethiopia.
|
||
Ecology — Estimated to range from Subtropical Desert to Thom through Tropical Desert
|
||
to Thom Forest Life Zones, yeheb is estimated to tolerate annual precipitation of 1 to 8 dm
|
||
(1 to 2 reported), annual temperature of 23 to 30°C, and pH of 6 to 8.5 (reported 7.8 to
|
||
8.4). In its native habitat, yeheb occurs in savannas, elevation 300 to 1,000 m, with poor
|
||
red sandy soils, two rainy seasons, annual rainfall of 250 to 400 mm, and no frosts.
|
||
Cultivation — Only recently brought under cultivation at the Central Agricultural Re
|
||
search Station at Afgoi, Somalia, and at Voi and Galana Ranch, Kenya. Seeds germinate
|
||
as high as 80%, the seedlings quickly developing a thin but tough tap root, which complicates
|
||
transplanting. Hence, field seeding is recommended.
|
||
Harvesting — Starts fmiting at age 3 or 4 years, fmits said to ripen in only 5 to 6 days.^^'*
|
||
Yields and economics — Overexploitation, overgrazing, nonflowering in drought, and
|
||
war in its native habitat, have all jeopardized the very existence of the yeheb. “ The plant
|
||
is in great danger of e x tin ctio n .S o m alis use ca. 200 g pulverized leaves to dye 90,000
|
||
cm^ calico. In the old days of British Somaliland, sacks of the nuts were brought down to
|
||
the coast for sale.^^*
|
||
Energy — No data available.
|
||
Biotic factors — Although the shmb itself is essentially free of insect pests, the nuts are
|
||
attacked by weevils and moth larvae. Rhizobia are not reported, but root nodules are reported
|
||
on younger roots.®
|
||
116 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
CO RYLU S AM ERICANA Walt. (BETULACEAE) — American Hazelnut or Filbert
|
||
Uses — Cultivated for production of nuts for home use and wildlife, for cover and shelter-
|
||
belt use, and for an ornamental. Kernels eaten raw or roasted, alone or mixed with other
|
||
nuts.^^^ Nuts may be beaten to a powder and used like flour to make filbert bread.
|
||
Folk medicine — According to H artw ell,the bark is used in folk remedies for a poultice
|
||
for tumors. Reported to be a panacea, American hazelnut is a folk remedy for stomatitis
|
||
and tumor.Chippewa used the charcoal, pricked into the temples with needles, as analgesic;
|
||
Ojibwa used a poultice of boiled bark to help close and heal cuts.^’^ Said to cause allergic
|
||
rhinitis, bronchial asthma, and/or hypersensitivity pneumonitis.’*"^
|
||
Chemistry — Smith'”’^ reports the nuts to contain 5.4% water, 16.5% protein, 64.0%
|
||
fat, 11.7% carbohydrates, 2.4% ash, and 3,100 calories per pound.
|
||
Description — Deciduous shrub, forming dense thickets, 1 to 3 m tall; branchlets pu
|
||
bescent and glandular bristly. Leaves 7.5 to 15 cm long, slightly cordate or rounded at base,
|
||
broadly ovate or obovate, irregularly doubly serrate, sparingly pubescent above, paler and
|
||
finely tomentose beneath. Involucre pubescent but not bristly, compressed, about twice as
|
||
long as nut, the 2 bracts sometimes connate and usually tightly enclosing it with rather short,
|
||
triangular, denate lobes, the whole 1.5 to 3 cm long; nut roundish-ovate, compressed, 1 to
|
||
1.5 cm long. Flowers March to April; fruits July to October; seed dispersal July to winter.
|
||
Germplasm — Reported from the North American Center of Diversity. Of the botanical
|
||
varieties, the following are sometimes recognized: C. am ericana forma m issouriensis (DC.)
|
||
Fern., plants without stipitate glands, and found occasionally throughout the range of the
|
||
species. C. am ericana var. indehiscens Palm, and Steyerm., with fruiting bracts united on
|
||
one side, found from North Carolina to Missouri. C. am ericana var. calyculata Winkl. (C.
|
||
calyculata Dipp.), the involucre with 2 very large bracts at base. The most important cvs
|
||
of the American filbert are ‘Rush’ and ‘Winkler’, both very widely cultivated and the most
|
||
hardy of all filberts. Four hybrids — ‘Bixly’, ‘Buchanan’, ‘Reed’, and ‘Potomac’, have
|
||
been introduced; these have intermediate characteristics between European and American
|
||
varieties. The cultivars of American hazelnut have smaller nuts than those of European
|
||
filberts. (2n = 22.
|
||
Distribution — Native from eastern Canada and Maine west to Ontario and Saskatchewan,
|
||
south to Florida, Georgia, Oklahoma, and the Dakotas. Also usually cultivated within that
|
||
range.
|
||
117
|
||
Ecology — Estimated to range from Warm Temperate Dry to Wet through Cool Temperate
|
||
Moist to Wet Forest Life Zones, the American hazelnut is estimated to tolerate annual
|
||
precipitation of 5 to 30 dm, annual temperature of 6 to 14°C, and pH of 5.0 to 8.0.^^
|
||
Naturally grows in or along edge of woods and thickets, on both dry and moist soils.
|
||
However, it grows best on moderately rich, well-drained soils. Filberts should be planted
|
||
on soils which are deep, fertile, and well-drained. Heavy clay or silt soils as well as coarse,
|
||
deep sand should be avoided. When planted on poorly drained soils, shrub grows poorly,
|
||
is subject to winter injury and bears few nuts.^^^ Hardy to Zone
|
||
Cultivation — Most filberts offered for sale by nurserymen have been propagated by
|
||
layering and are on their own roots. Trees that have been grown for 1 or 2 years in the
|
||
nursery after the layers have been removed from parent stock are preferable to older trees.
|
||
Some nurserymen propagate their trees on Turkish filbert roots that do not produce suckers.
|
||
This rootstock generally outgrows the scion to some extent. Filbert can be propagated from
|
||
seed which have been stratified 60 days at 5°C, plus 67 days at 18°C, and 30 days at 5°C.
|
||
Stratified seed should be sown in spring. Seed should be drilled in fall and protected from
|
||
rodents. Germination is hypogeous. Horticultural cvs are propagated by suckers, layering,
|
||
budding, or grafting and cuttings. Filberts of all varieties should be planted 5 to 7 m or
|
||
more apart. In most cases, trees are planted in late winter or very early spring, after danger
|
||
of severe freezing is passed. The same general methods of planting should be used as for
|
||
apple and peach trees. Newly transplanted and young trees should be cultivated sufficiently
|
||
to destroy all grass and weed growth before the beginning of tree growth in spring and
|
||
through July. Mulching trees with any type of organic matter is as satisfactory as cultivation,
|
||
provided that sufficient mulch is applied to a large enough area around each tree to keep
|
||
grass and weed growth suppressed. In general, the same cultural practices used for peaches
|
||
are satisfactory for filberts. Filberts generally respond readily to fertilizer applications,
|
||
although no recommendation would apply to all situations. On most soils, it is not advisable
|
||
to apply any fertilizer the first year after transplanting. Beginning the second year, about
|
||
475 gm (1 lb) per tree of a 5-10-5 or 6-6-5 fertilizer should be broadcast around the tree
|
||
just before beginning of tree growth. The amount of fertilizer is increased by 475 gm/year
|
||
until trees are 10 to 12 years old; after that, ca. 5 kg/per tree is adequate. Filberts are pruned
|
||
to balance top loss with root loss (in planting), or to train young trees to desired form, or
|
||
to remove dead, broken, or diseased branches, or to stimulate moderate growth of new
|
||
shoots on old trees. At planting, tree should be cut back to about 60 cm above the ground,
|
||
leaving 4 to 6 branches to grow. Trees or shrubs should be trained to the central leader
|
||
form, provided it does not require removal of much wood. The more wood removed from
|
||
young plants, the later they come into bearing; therefore, only necessary pruning should be
|
||
done. Pruning should be done after pollen is shed and anthers have fallen. Since American
|
||
filberts or hazelnuts tend to sucker, the suckers should be removed promptly and the plant
|
||
trained to a single stem. Suckers should be removed at point on trunk or root where they
|
||
originate; cutting them off at surface of soil only increases the number that grow. Suckering
|
||
operations should be done 3 to 4 times a year, as they are easier to remove when young.
|
||
Harvesting — Most filbert varieties are self-unfruitful, even though staminate and pis
|
||
tillate catkins are on the same tree or bush. Cross-pollination must be provided for satisfactory
|
||
fruit-production. In all plantings, 2 or more varieties should be included. The period of
|
||
pistillate flowering is usually much longer than that of pollen-shedding on a particular variety.
|
||
Furthermore, pollen of one variety must be shed when pistillate flowers of the other variety
|
||
are receptive. Nuts, good flavored, should be harvested from bushes in the fall as soon as
|
||
edges of husks begin to turn brown. As all nuts do not mature at once, 2 to 4 gatherings
|
||
may be necessary in a season. If nuts drop easily to ground, they should not be allowed to
|
||
remain there long because of loss to rodents and birds and discoloration and moldiness due
|
||
to wet weather. Nuts should be promptly dried by spreading them in a thin layer in a dry
|
||
118 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
place having good air circulation. Nuts dried in an unheated building usually require 4 to
|
||
6 weeks for drying. During this process, they should be stirred frequently to prevent molding.
|
||
The temperature of nuts dried by artificial heat should not be higher than 45°C; otherwise
|
||
they will not store well. After nuts have dried for this time, they are flailed to remove the
|
||
husk. The nuts, which are the commercial seed, can then be sown, stratified, or stored.
|
||
Storage in sealed containers at 5°C will retain a large part of viability in C. am ericana for
|
||
at least 2 years.
|
||
Yields and economics — Brinkman^^ reports 491 seed per lb (ca. 1,080/kg). American
|
||
filberts give good crops every 2 to 3 years, or light crops every year. Yield, size of nut,
|
||
purity, soundness, and cost of commercial seed vary according to cv.^^® Great quantities of
|
||
hazelnuts are gathered each year for home use in northeastern U.S. and Canada. Many more
|
||
are used as food for wildlife.
|
||
Energy — Small and erratically bearing, this species does not seem to hold great promise
|
||
as a firewood or oilseed species. The 64% oil could conceivably serve as an energy source.
|
||
Biotic factors — A fungus disease. Eastern filbert blight, may cause severe damage to
|
||
European filberts in the eastern U.S.; once well-established in a planting, it is very difficult,
|
||
if not impossible to control. Growers should spot and eradicate early infections. Although
|
||
this disease is almost always on American filbert plants, it usually does little damage to
|
||
them. Each spring, trees should be carefully inspected and any diseased branches cut out
|
||
and burned. Among the insect pests, hazelnut weevil, in severe infestations, may completely
|
||
destroy the crop of nuts. Leaves are preferred food for Japanese beetles, and plants may be
|
||
completely defoliated by them. Filbert bug mite and Birch case-borer (C olephora salm ani)
|
||
may be pest problems. Stink-bugs and other plant bugs attack developing nuts and cause
|
||
them to be bitter when mature. As these insects breed on various plants, as legumes and
|
||
blackberries, control chiefly depends on orchard sanitation and elimination from plantation
|
||
of host plants on which bugs breed. For control of all pests, consult local state agents.
|
||
According to Agriculture Handbook No. 165,'* the following attack this species: A pioporthe
|
||
anom ala, Cenangium furfuraceum , C ucurbitaria con globata, C ylindrosporium verm iform is,
|
||
D iaporth e decedens, D iatrypella fro stii, D . m issouriensis, D ip lo d ia coryli, G loeosporium
|
||
coryli, G nom oniella coryli, G. gnom on, H ym enochaete cinnam om ea, H ypoxylon fuscum ,
|
||
M elanconis fla vo viren s, M icrosph aera alni, P hyllactinia corylea, P hym atotrichum omni-
|
||
vorum , P hysalospora obtusa, P olyporu s albellus, P. elegans, P. radiatus, P . stereoides,
|
||
Scorias spongiosa, Septogloeum profusum , S eptoria corylina, S phaeropsis coryli, Taphrina
|
||
coryli, and Valsa am biens.
|
||
119
|
||
CO RYLU S AVELLANA L. (BETULACEAE) — European Filbert, Cobnuts, Hazelnuts, Bar
|
||
celona Nuts
|
||
Uses — Long-cultivated, this is the main source of filberts of commerce. Kernel of nut
|
||
eaten raw, roasted, or salted, alone or with other nuts; also used in confections and baked
|
||
goods. Leaves sometimes used for smoking like tobacco. Hazelnut or filbert oil, a clear,
|
||
yellow, non-drying oil is used in food, for painting, in perfumes, as fuel oil, for manufacture
|
||
of soaps, and for machinery. Hazelwood or nutwood is soft, elastic, reddish-white with dark
|
||
lines, and is easy to split, but is not very durable. It is used for handles, sieves, walking
|
||
sticks, hoops of barrels, hurdles, wattles, and is a source of charcoal made into gunpow
|
||
der. 278,324
|
||
Folk medicine — According to H artw ell,th e paste derived from the bark is said to be
|
||
a folk remedy for tumors. A salve, derived from the leaves and nuts, in a plaster with honey,
|
||
is said to be a cure for cancer. Reported to be fumitory and vasoconstrictor, European filberts
|
||
are a folk remedy for hypotension and parotid tumors.Medicinally, the nuts are tonic,
|
||
stomachic, and aphrodisiac.^^®
|
||
Chemistry — Per 100 g, the seed is reported to contain 620 to 634 calories, 16.4 to 20.0
|
||
g protein, 54.3 to 58.5 g fat, 21.4 to 22.9 g total carbohydrates, 3.3 to 5.9 g fiber, 1.8 to
|
||
3.7 g ash, 201 mg Ca, 462 mg P, 4.5 mg Fe, 1044 mg K, 10.80 |xg beta-carotene equivalent,
|
||
0.17 mg thiamine, 0.44 mg riboflavin, 5.40 mg niacin, and 2.2 mg ascorbic acid.®^ The
|
||
Wealth of India'^^ reports the kernel to contain 12.7% protein, \1 .1% carbohydrate, 60.9%
|
||
fat, 0.35% P; rich in phosphorus. Kernel contains 50 to 65% of a golden yellow oil. The
|
||
fatty acid components are 88.1% oleic, 1.9% linoleic, 3.1% palmitic, 1.6% stearic, and
|
||
2.2% myristic. The leaves contain myricitroside, a rhamnoside of myricetol and allantoic
|
||
acid. The bark contains lignoceryl alcohol, betulinol, and sitosterol.Pollen contains guan-
|
||
osine (C10N13N5O5) and n-triacosan. The wood contains cellulose, galactan, mannan, araban,
|
||
and xylan. The ripe fruit contains 50 to 60% fat. Corylus oil contains 85% oleic- and 10%
|
||
palmitic-acid esters; in addition, 0.5% phytosterol, protein, corylin (?), 2 to 5% sucrose, 2
|
||
to 5% ash, melibiose (C12H22O11), manninotriose (C18H32O16), raffmose (C,8H320i6), and
|
||
stachyose (C24H42O21). Leaves contain taraxerol (C30H50O), (3-sitosterol, 3a, 7a,22a-tri-
|
||
hydroxystigmasterol, n-nonacosan? (C29H60), myricitrin (C21H50O), sucrose, essential oil,
|
||
18% palmitic-acid, 6.6% ash (52.8% CaO, 5.8% Si02, 2.6% Fc203). The bark contains
|
||
tannic acid, lignocerylalcohol, sitosterol, and betulin (C3oH5o02).‘*^
|
||
Description — Deciduous shrub or small tree, up to 6 m tall, often thicket-forming; dark-
|
||
brown, smooth, with glandular-hairy twigs; leaves 5 to 12 cm long, orbicular, long-pointed,
|
||
hairy on both surfaces; margin doubly serrated; catkins appearing before leaves; staminate
|
||
catkins 2 to 8 cm long, pendulous, in clusters of 1 to 4; pistillate flowers about 5 mm long,
|
||
bud-like, erect; fruit in clusters of 1 to 4; nuts 1.5 to 2 cm in diameter, brown, invested by
|
||
deeply lobed irregularly toothed bracts as long as nut. Flowers January to March; fruits
|
||
fall.2^®
|
||
Germplasm — Reported from the Near Eastern and Mediterranean Centers of Diversity,
|
||
European filbert, or cvs thereof, is reported to tolerate disease, frost, high pH, low pH, and
|
||
slope.®^ European filberts are varieties or hybrids of C. avellana and C. m axim a, both natives
|
||
of Old World. In Europe, filberts are those varieties with tubular husks longer than nut,
|
||
which is usually oblong; cob-nuts are roundish, angular, with husks about length of nut. In
|
||
America, all varieties of C. avellan a are filberts, and native species of C orylu s are hazelnuts.
|
||
Many hybrids between C. avellana, C. m axim a, and the American filberts have been pro
|
||
duced and many selections have been made. Hybrids with ‘Rush’ (a selection of C. am er-
|
||
icana) have produced some very hardy and productive plants, as ‘Bixly’, ‘Buchanan’,
|
||
‘Potomac’, and ‘Reed’. Mixed hybrid seedlings are often sold as ‘Jones Hybrids’. ‘Barcelona’
|
||
is the principal variety cultivated in Oregon, with ‘Daviana’ and ‘DuChilly’ as pollinizers.
|
||
120 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
‘Cosford’, ‘Medium Long’, and ‘Italian Red’ are the best of over 100 varieties grown in
|
||
New York. ‘Purple Aveline’ is grown for its deep-red foliage in spring. C. avellana var.
|
||
pontica (C. Koch) Winkler (Pontine Hazel or Trabzon Filbert) with lacerated, tubular husks,
|
||
with nuts maturing by end of August, easily propagated by layering or grafting, long
|
||
cultivated in Asia Minor.Three varieties popular for ornamental planting are ‘Aurea’
|
||
(yellow leaves), ‘Contorta’ (twigs definitely curled and twisted), and ‘Pendula’ (with pen
|
||
dulous b r a n c h e s ) . ( 2 n = 22,28.)
|
||
Distribution — Native throughout most of Europe, except some islands and in the extreme
|
||
north and northeast, east to the Caucasus and Asia, south to North Africa and temperate
|
||
western Asia. Widely cultivated in temperate zones of Old and New World. Common in
|
||
gardens on hill country in India, but unsuccessful on plains there; cultivated in Oregon and
|
||
W ashington.Cultivated varieties introduced to the west coast of the U.S. in 1871.^®^
|
||
Ecology — Ranging from Boreal Wet through Subtropical Thom to Dry Forest Life
|
||
Zones, European filbert is reported to tolerate precipitation of 3.1 to 13.6 dm (mean of 29
|
||
cases = 7.0), annual temperature of 5.9 to 18.6°C (mean of 29 cases = 10.3°C), and pH
|
||
of 4.5 to 8.2 (mean of 21 cases = 6.5).^^ Grows and is cultivated principally in countries
|
||
where summer temperatures are comparatively cool and winter temperatures uniform and
|
||
mild. Trees often injured during both mild and severe winters. Low temperatures, following
|
||
periods of warm weather during latter half of winter generally cause more cold injury to
|
||
catkins and wood than do abnormally low temperatures earlier in the season. Winters of
|
||
continuous mild temperatures or those with severe but steady low temperatures (not lower
|
||
than -5°C) usually result in little injury. Winters of alternating thawing and freezing cause
|
||
most damage. High summer temperatures, as in Eastern and Central U.S., often cause leaves
|
||
to scorch and bum and are an important factor in preventing trees from growing and fruiting
|
||
satisfactorily. Much of this trouble probably results from inadequate soil moisture supply at
|
||
critical times, as filbert does not have a deep taproot, and the feeding roots are fibrous and
|
||
shallow. Hence, commercial filbert production in the U.S. is confined to the Northwest
|
||
where climatic conditions are more favorable.H ardy to Zone 3.^"^^
|
||
Cultivation — The site for filberts should be selected so as to delay opening of flowers
|
||
until the time when temperatures lower than — 5°C are no longer to be expected. A northern
|
||
slope or cover is the most satisfactory type of site. Cold, exposed sites, subject to drying
|
||
effects of winds, should be avoided. Filberts are usually propagated by layering so that new
|
||
plants are on their own roots. Some varieties sucker profusely, and soil is mounded up
|
||
around these in spring to depth of several cm. By the following spring, roots have developed
|
||
at base of sucker. Then, rooted suckers are cut loose, taken up and grown for a year in the
|
||
nursery before setting them in a permanent site. Filberts may be propagated from seed, but
|
||
varieties and cultivars do not come true. Seeds require after-ripening for germination. They
|
||
may be stratified in sand over the winter. In spring, seeds are planted in the nursery and
|
||
seedlings grown for 2 years. Buds grafted on C. colurna seedlings showed 39% successful
|
||
union. Filbert trees of most varieties should be planted 5 to 7 m or more apart. Small
|
||
growing hybrids can be planted 3 to 5 m apart. In most cases, trees should be planted in
|
||
late winter or very early spring, after danger of severe freezing weather has passed. The
|
||
same general methods of planting should be used as that used for apple or peach. Newly
|
||
transplanted and young trees should be cultivated sufficiently to destroy all grass and weed
|
||
growth before the beginning of tree growth in spring and through July. Mulching trees with
|
||
organic matter is equally satisfactory, provided that sufficient mulch is applied to a large
|
||
enough area around each tree to suppress grass and weed growth. In general, the same
|
||
cultural practices used for peaches are satisfactory for filberts. Filberts generally respond
|
||
readily to fertilizer applications, although no recommendation would apply to all conditions.
|
||
On most soils, it is not advisable to apply any fertilizer the first year after transplanting.
|
||
Beginning the second year, about 475 g (1 lb) per tree of a 5-10-5 or 6-6-5 fertilizer should
|
||
121
|
||
be broadcast around tree just before beginning of tree growth. The amount of fertilizer should
|
||
be increased by 475 g (1 lb) per tree per year until trees are 10 to 12 years old; after that
|
||
ca. 5 kg per tree per year is sufficient. Filberts are pruned to: (1) balance top loss with root
|
||
loss in planting operations; (2) train young trees to desired form; and (3) remove dead or
|
||
broken branches and stimulate moderate new shoot growth on older trees. At planting, the
|
||
tree should be cut back to about 60 cm above ground, and 4 to 6 branches should be allowed
|
||
to grow. Trees should be trained to the central leader form, provided it does not require
|
||
removal of much wood. The more wood removed from young trees, the later they come
|
||
into bearing; therefore, only necessary pruning should be done. Older trees that make short
|
||
shoot growth should have branches thinned out and slightly cut back to stimulate production
|
||
of stronger, more vigorous shoots. Pruning should be done after pollen is shed and catkins
|
||
have fallen. All filberts except Turkish tend to grow as bushes by suckering from roots. All
|
||
suckers should be promptly removed and the tree trained to a single stem. Suckers should
|
||
be removed at the point on the trunk or root where they originate; cutting them off at the
|
||
soil surface only increases the suckers that grow. Suckering operations should be done 3 or
|
||
4 times a year, as young suckers are easier to remove.
|
||
Harvesting — Shrubs or trees begin bearing in about 4 years and bear well nearly every
|
||
year. Staminate and pistillate appear on the same tree in different clusters. Depending on
|
||
the location and winter weather conditions, pollination begins in January to March and lasts
|
||
about 1 month. Young nuts do not become visible until late June or early July. There is a
|
||
3 to 4 month lapse between pollination and fertilization. Although filbert trees flower when
|
||
freezing temperatures can be expected, they are generally not injured unless the temperature
|
||
drops to about - 10°C during the period of pollination. Most filbert varieties are self-
|
||
unfruitful, and cross-pollination must be provided for satisfactory fruit-production. In all
|
||
plantings, trees of 2 or more varieties should be included. The period of pistillate flowering
|
||
is usually much longer than that of pollen-shedding on a particular variety. Furthermore,
|
||
pollen of one variety must be shed at a time when pistillate flowers of the other variety are
|
||
receptive. Pollen of C. avellana is effective on pistils of C. cornuta and C. americana, but
|
||
a reverse application is usually sterile. C. americana x C. avellana hybrids have been used
|
||
successfully to pollinate C. avellana. Nuts soon become rancid when stored at room tem
|
||
perature.^^* With good weather and modem equipment, five experienced workers can harvest
|
||
ca. 200 acres in 10 days.^®^
|
||
Yields and economics — No specific yield data available, as nuts are gathered several
|
||
times.A good orchard can provide ca. 2,000 kg/ha dry in-shell nuts annually. U.S.
|
||
imports ca. 45% of filberts consumed annually.Filberts include both C. avellana and C.
|
||
maxima and their hybrids, and they are not separated in the trade. In 1969— 1970, Turkey
|
||
exported about 81,300 MT of shelled nuts valued at $103 million, and 1,228 MT of unshelled
|
||
nuts valued at $783,342. In 1970, production was about 240,000 MT unshelled nuts. Filberts
|
||
range from $125-$150/ton. Major importers are West Germany, USSR, France, Italy, U.K.,
|
||
Switzerland, U.S., Lebanon, East Germany, and Syria. The U.S. produces about 9,000
|
||
tons annually in the shell and imports additional quantities.
|
||
Energy — Though not usually considered a firewood species, the wood could undoubtedly
|
||
serve such a purpose. Specific gravity of 0.917. The oil potential of nearly ca. 1 MT/ha
|
||
would better be utilized for edible than energy purposes.
|
||
Biotic factors — Nuts of some varieties drop freely from husk, while others must be
|
||
removed from husk by hand. Fallen nuts should be gathered 2 to 4 times during the harvest
|
||
season, as they do not all mature at the same time. Those that drop early should not be
|
||
allowed to lie on the ground because of loss to rodents and birds and discoloration or
|
||
moldiness due to wet weather. Nuts should be promptly dried by spreading them in a thin
|
||
layer in a dry place having good air circulation. Nuts dried in an unheated building usually
|
||
require 4 to 6 weeks for drying. During this process, they should be stirred frequently to
|
||
122 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
prevent molding. Temperature of nuts dried by artificial heat should not be higher than 45°C
|
||
— otherwise they will not store well. Kernels of fully dried nuts are firm and brittle and
|
||
will break with a sharp snap when hit with a hammer or crushed with the fingers. The
|
||
following fungi are known to cause diseases on European filbert: Anthostoma dubium,
|
||
Apioporthe anómala, Armillaria mellea, Cercospora coryli, Chorostate conjuncta, Ciboria
|
||
amentácea, Coriolus hoehnelii, Cryptospora corylina, Cylindrosporium coryli, Cytospora
|
||
corylicola, C. fuckelii, Diaporthe decedens, D. eres, Diatrype disciformis, D. stigma,
|
||
Diatrypella favacea, D. verrucaeformis, Cryptosporiopsis grisea, Diplodia sarmentorum,
|
||
D. coryli, Fenestella princeps, Fornes annosus, Fumago vagans, Gloeosporium coryli, G.
|
||
perexiguum, Gnomonia amoena, G. coryli, G. gnomon, Gnomoniella coryli, Helmintho-
|
||
sporium macrocarpum, H. velutinum, Helotim fructigenum, Hypoxylon fuscum, H. multi
|
||
forme, H. unitum, Labrella coryli, Lachnum hedwigiae, Mamiania coryli, Mamianiella
|
||
coryli, Marasmius foetidus, Melconis sulphurea, Melanomma pulvis-pyrius, Merulius rufus,
|
||
M. serpens, Monostichella coryli, Nectria coryli, N. ditissima, Nitschkia tristis, Orbilia
|
||
crenato-marginata, Peniophora cinerea, Pestalozzia coryli, Pezicula corylina, Phellinus
|
||
punctatus, Phoma suffulta, Phyllactinia corylea, Phyllosticta coryli, Phytophthora cactorum,
|
||
Radulum oribculae, Rhizopus nodosus, Sclerotinia fructigena, Septoria avellanae, Sillia
|
||
ferruginea, Stereum hirsutum, S. rugosum, Sphaeropsis coryli, Stictis mollis, Taphrina
|
||
coryli, Tyromyces semipileatus, Valsa corylina, and Vuilleminia comedens. European filbert
|
||
trees are attacked by the bacteria, Agrobacterium tumefaciens and Xanthomonas coryli.
|
||
Nematodes isolated from filberts include: Caconema radicicola, Heterodera marioni, Lon-
|
||
gidorus maximus, and Pratylenchus penetrans. Few insects attack leaves, branches, or nuts;
|
||
some may cause severe damage unless controlled. Stink bugs and other plant bugs attack
|
||
developing nuts and cause them to be bitter when mature. As these insects breed on various
|
||
plants, as legumes, blackberries, and others, control chiefly depends on orchard sanitation
|
||
and elimination of host plants on which bugs breed.
|
||
123
|
||
CORYLUS CHINENSIS Franch. (BETULACEAE) — Chinese Filbert
|
||
Syn.: C orylu s co lu m n var. ch in en sis Burk.
|
||
Uses — Kernels of nuts edible, used for food, eaten raw, roasted, or in cookery, and as
|
||
flavoring. Plants used for hybridizing, since they are trees relatively resistant to Eastern
|
||
filbert blight.
|
||
Folk medicine — No data available.
|
||
Chemistry — No data available.
|
||
Description — Deciduous tree up to 40 m tall; leaves 10 to 17 cm tall, ovate to ovate-
|
||
oblong, cordate or very oblique at base, glabrous above, pubescent along veins beneath,
|
||
doubly serrate, petioles 0.8 to 2.5 cm long, pubescent and setulose; fruits 4 to 6, clustered;
|
||
involucre, not spiny, constricted above nut, with recurved and more or less forked lobes,
|
||
finely pubescent, not glandular; nuts relatively small, hard-shelled but of high quality.
|
||
Germplasm — Reported from the China-Japan Center of Diversity, Chinese filbert, or
|
||
CVS thereof, is reported to tolerate disease, drought, frost, heat, and slope.Som e selections
|
||
are heavy producers. Cultivated, along with its hybrids, in southern Michigan.(2n = 11.
|
||
Distribution — China;cultivated in Michigan.
|
||
Ecology — Ranging from Warm Temperate Dry to Moist Forest Life Zones, Chinese
|
||
filbert is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 6.6 to 12.3 dm (mean of 2 cases =
|
||
9.5), annual temperature of 14.7 to 15.0°C (mean of 2 cases = 14.9°C), and pH of 4.9 to
|
||
6.8 (mean of 2 cases = 5.9).®^ Thrives in soils which permit its strong root system to
|
||
penetrate to great depths. Trees resistant to cold, heat, drought, and other hazardous con
|
||
ditions of the environment.^^®
|
||
Cultivation — Propagated by seeds, but seedlings vary greatly in productivity and bearing
|
||
age. Often hybridized with other species to get larger nuts and more hardy plants. Trees
|
||
produce few or no suckers.
|
||
Harvesting — Trees begin to bear fruit in about 8 years, and then continue for a long
|
||
time. Nuts harvested in fall as other filbert tree species. Treatment, drying, and storage
|
||
methods similar to those used for other filberts and hazelnuts.
|
||
Yields and economics — Although no exact figures are available for this species, its
|
||
selections and hybrids are said to be heavy producers. No specific production figures for
|
||
this species.
|
||
Energy — As a tall tree, this produces better firewood than some of the bushy species
|
||
of Corylus.
|
||
Biotic factors — No specific data available for this species, but same precautions should
|
||
be taken as for other filberts. Trees are relatively resistant to Eastern filbert blight.
|
||
124 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
CO RYLU S COLU RN A L. (BETULACEAE) — Turkish Filbert or Hazelnut, Constantinople
|
||
Nut
|
||
Uses — Cultivated for the nuts, the edible kernel used for confections, pastries, and for
|
||
flavoring. Nuts also used roasted or salted, alone or with other nuts. This species is rarely
|
||
cultivated for nuts in North America, but rather as an ornamental and for nursery under
|
||
stock.
|
||
Folk medicine — Nuts used as a tonic.
|
||
Chemistry — According to Hager’s Handbook,*®^ the nuts contain melibiose, manni-
|
||
notriose, raffinose, and stachyose.
|
||
Description — Deciduous shrub or small tree, rarely up to 25 m tall, with regular
|
||
pyramidal head; leaves 7.5 to 12.5 cm long, deeply cordate, rounded, ovate or obovate,
|
||
slightly lobed, doubly serrate, nearly glabrous above, pubescent beneath; petioles 2.5 cm
|
||
long, usually glabbrescent, stipules lanceolate and acuminate; catkins up to 12 cm long,
|
||
pendent; involucre much longer than nut, open at apex, divided almost to base into many
|
||
long-acuminate or linear serrate lobes, densely covered with glandular hairs; nut globose or
|
||
roundish-ovate, about 2 cm long, hard. Flowers late winter to early spring; fruits fall.^^®
|
||
Germplsm — Reported from the Near East Center of Diversity, Turkish filbert, or cvs
|
||
thereof, is reported to tolerate drought, frost, poor soil, shade, and slo p e .C . colurna var.
|
||
glandulifera DC. has glandular-setose petioles and peduncles, with the lobes of involucre
|
||
less acute and more dentate. Some selectins are heavy producers. Many other named botanical
|
||
varieties, x C. colurnoides C. K. Sch. is a hybrid of C. avellana x C. colurna, grown
|
||
in Germany. (2n =
|
||
Distribution — Native to southeastern Europe and southwestern Siberia, south to the
|
||
western Himalayas from Kashmir to Kumaon, at altitudes from 1,500 to 3,000 m; common
|
||
in Kashmir forests; also found in Afghanistan, Balkan Peninsula, and Rumania. Extensively
|
||
cultivated in Turkey.
|
||
Ecology — Ranging from Cool Temperate Moist to Wet through Subtropical Dry Forest
|
||
Life Zones, Turkish filbert is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 5.2 to 14.7 dm
|
||
(mean of 8 cases = 8.8), annual temperature of 8.4 to 18.6°C (mean of 8 cases = 12.0°C),
|
||
and pH of 5.3 to 7.2 (mean of 8 cases = 6.6).®^ A temperate plant, but not quite hardy
|
||
northward into the U.S. and Europe. Thrives on deep, fertile, well-drained soils, in regions
|
||
where summer temperatures are comparatively cool and winters uniform and mild. Winters
|
||
too mild or too severe injure both catkins and wood. Also winters with alternate thawing
|
||
and freezing are injurious. For best cultivation, winter temperatures should not drop below
|
||
- 10°C.2"«
|
||
Cultivation — Turkish filbert is propagated from seeds or graftings on seedling stock.
|
||
Since it does not sucker or stool, as do most species of C orylu s, its seedlings are used as
|
||
understocks for horticultural varieties of the European and American species. Trees should
|
||
be planted 5 to 7 m or more apart, except for hybrid varieties, which are small-growing and
|
||
can be planted 3 to 5 m apart. Trees should be planted in late winter or very early spring,
|
||
after danger of severe freezing has passed. The same general methods of planting should
|
||
be used as for apple or peach trees. Newly transplanted and young trees should be cultivated
|
||
sufficiently to destroy all grass and weed growth before the beginning of tree growth in
|
||
spring and through July. Mulching trees with any type of organic matter is equally as
|
||
satisfactory as cultivation, provided that sufficient mulch is applied. In general, the same
|
||
cultural practices used for peaches are satisfactory for filberts. Filberts generally respond
|
||
readily to fertilizer applications, although no recommendation would apply to all conditions.
|
||
On most soils, it is not advisable to apply any fertilizer the first year after transplanting.
|
||
Beginning the second year, about 475 gm (1 lb) per tree of a 5-10-5 or 6-6-5 fertilizer should
|
||
be broadcast around tree just before beginning of tree growth. Amount of fertilizer increased
|
||
125
|
||
475 gm (1 lb) per year until the tenth or twelfth year, and from then on apply about 4.7 kg
|
||
(10 lbs) per tree per year. Prune trees to desirable shape and remove dead or broken branches.
|
||
Since Turkish filberts do not sucker, little attention is given to the trees after they are
|
||
established.^^®
|
||
Harvesting — Nuts are harvested in fall. Trees bear every third year, beginning the
|
||
eighth year. However, in Turkey where they are extensively cultivated for the nuts, trees
|
||
yield annually from the fourth year onwards up to the twentieth year. Nuts of Turkish filberts
|
||
are said to be as good in quality as the English hazelnut. Nuts of some varieties drop free
|
||
from husk while others must be removed from husk by hand. Fallen nuts should be gathered
|
||
2 to 4 times during the harvest season as they do not all mature at same time. Those that
|
||
drop early should not be left on ground because of loss by rodents and birds, and because
|
||
of discoloration and moldiness due to wet weather. Nuts should be promptly dried by
|
||
spreading them in a thin layer in a dry place having good air circulation. Nuts dried in an
|
||
unheated building usually require 4 to 6 weeks for drying. During this process the nuts
|
||
should be stirred frequently to prevent molding. Temperature of nuts dried by artificial heat
|
||
should not exceed 46°C (115°F) — otherwise they will not store well. Kernels of fully dried
|
||
nuts are firm and brittle and will break with a sharp snap when hit with a hammer or crushed
|
||
with the fingers.
|
||
Yields and economics — No specific data on yields separate from that of other filberts
|
||
cultivated in same areas, as Turkey and southeast Europe. However, some selections are
|
||
said to be very good producers of nuts. Extensively cultivated in Turkey, and to a lesser
|
||
degree in southeast Europe and western Asia, south into temperate Himalayas. Although
|
||
trees are said to yield a good crop, production figures are not separated from production of
|
||
other European or Asiatic filberts.
|
||
Energy — Like other members of the genus C orylu s, this holds little promise as an
|
||
energy species, but can provide firewood and seed oils. As a tree species, it can provide
|
||
higher quality firewood than shrubby species of C orylus.
|
||
Biotic factors — The following fungi are known to attack Turkish filbert: H yposylon
|
||
m ultiform e, L enzites jap ó n ica , M icrosph aeria alni, P hyllactinia corylea, and Pucciniastrum
|
||
coryli. The bacterium P seudom onas colurnae has been isolated from this species. Mycorrhiza
|
||
are necessary in the soil. As staminate and pistillate flowers do not always become fertile
|
||
on the same tree at the same time, and since most filberts are self-unfruitful, for commercial
|
||
production, several varieties should be planted near each other for cross pollination, thus
|
||
assuring good nut production.
|
||
126 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
CO RYLU S CORNU TA Marsh (BETULACEAE) Beaked Filbert
|
||
Syn.: C orylu s rostrata Ait.
|
||
Uses — Nuts used for human food and wildlife food; plants used for erosion control and
|
||
cover and for basket splints.
|
||
Folk medicine — Ojibwa Indians used a poultice of boiled bark to help close and heal
|
||
wounds; Potawatomi used the inner bark as an astringent.^‘^
|
||
Chemistry — No data available.
|
||
Description — Deciduous shrub, 0.6 to 3 m tall, thicket-forming, sometimes a small tree
|
||
to 10 m tall; bark smooth; branchlets pubescent, villous or glabrous, later glabrescent, not
|
||
bristly; leaves 6 to 10 cm long, ovate or narrowly oval, acuminate, cordate or obtuse at
|
||
base, incised-serrate or serrulate on margins, glabrous or with scattered appressed hairs
|
||
above, sparsely pubescent beneath, at least along veins; petioles glandless, 0.4 to 0.8 cm
|
||
long; mature involucral of connate bracts 4 to 7 cm long, densely bristly toward base, usually
|
||
rather abruptly constructed into an elongated beak, cut at summit into narrowly triangular
|
||
lobes; nut ovoid, brown, compressed, striate, 1.2 to 2.3 cm long. Flowers February to May;
|
||
fruits July to September; seed dispersal July to winter.
|
||
Germplasm — Reported from the North American Center of Diversity, beaked filbert,
|
||
or CVS thereof, is reported to tolerate frost, slope, smog, and S02-®^ Among botanical varieties
|
||
are the following: C. cornuta forma inerm is Fern., a form in Quebec with non-bristly
|
||
involucres; C. Cornunta var. californica (A. DC.) Sharp (C. californica (A.DC.) Rose), a
|
||
variety found on the West Coast. (2n = 28.)^^®
|
||
Distribution — Native to eastern North America from Newfoundland and Quebec to
|
||
British Columbia, south to Georgia and Missouri, and on the west coast from California
|
||
northward. Cultivated else where.
|
||
Ecology — Ranging from Boreal Moist through Cool Temperate Steppe to Wet Forest
|
||
Life Zones, beaked filbert is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 3.5 to 11.6 dm
|
||
(mean of 10 cases = 6.8), annual temperature of 5.7 to 12.5°C (mean of 10 cases = 8.1°C),
|
||
and pH of 5.0 to 7.5 (mean of 9 cases = 6.5).^^ Naturally thrives in moist woods and
|
||
thickets, on low hillsides, in rich, well-drained soil. When cultivated, shrubs should be
|
||
planted in soils which are deep, fertile, and well-drained. Heavy clay or silt soils as well
|
||
as coarse, deep sand should be avoided. When planted on poorly drained soils, the shrub
|
||
grows poorly, is subject to winter injury, and bears few nuts.^^®
|
||
Cultivation — Most filberts offered for sale by nurserymen have been propagated by
|
||
layering and are on their own roots. Trees or shrubs grown for 1 or 2 years in nursery after
|
||
the layers have been removed from parent stock are preferable to older plants. Some nurs
|
||
erymen propagated their stock on Turkish filbert roots that do not produce suckers. This
|
||
rootstock generally outgrows the scion to some extent. Beaked filberts can be propagated
|
||
from seed which has been stratified for 60 to 90 days at 5°C. Germination is hypogeous.
|
||
Natural seed dispersal is chiefly by animals. Stratified seed are planted in spring. However,
|
||
seed may be planted in fall in drills and protected from rodents. Horticultural varieties are
|
||
propagated by suckers, layering, budding or grafting, and cuttings. Filberts of all varieties
|
||
should be planted 5 to 7 m or more apart. In most cases, trees or shrubs are planted in late
|
||
winter or very early spring, after danger of severe freezing is passed. The same general
|
||
methods of planting should be used as for apple or peach trees. Newly transplanted and
|
||
young plants should be cultivated sufficiently to destroy all grass and weed growth before
|
||
the beginning of tree growth in spring and through July. Mulching plants with any type of
|
||
organic matter is equally as satisfactory as cultivation, provided that sufficient mulch is
|
||
applied. In general, the same cultural practices used for peaches are satisfactory for filberts.
|
||
Filberts generally respond favorably to fertilizer applications, although no recommendation
|
||
would apply to all situations. On most soils it is not advisable to apply any fertilizer the
|
||
127
|
||
first year after transplanting. Beginning the second year, about 475 g (1 lb) per tree of a 5-
|
||
10-5 or 6-6-5 fertilizer should be broadcast around the tree just before the beginning of tree
|
||
growth. The amount of fertilizer is increased 475 g/year until plants are 10 to 12 years old;
|
||
after that, about 4.7 kg per plant is sufficient. Pruning filberts is done to balance top with
|
||
loss of roots in planting operations, to train young trees to desired form, to remove dead,
|
||
broken or diseased branches, or to stimulate moderate growth on new shoots on old trees.
|
||
At planting, tree should be cut back to about 60 cm above the ground, leaving 4 to 6 branches
|
||
to grow. Trees or shrubs should be trained to the central leader form, provided it does not
|
||
mean removal of much wood. The more wood removed from young plants, the later they
|
||
come into bearing; therefore, only necessary pruning should be done. Pruning should be
|
||
done after pollen shedding is over and anthers have fallen. Since beaked filberts or hazelnuts
|
||
tend to sucker, the suckers should be removed promptly and the plant trained to a single
|
||
stem. Suckers should be removed at the point on the trunk or root where they originate;
|
||
cutting them off at surface of soil only increases the number that grow. Suckering operations
|
||
should be done 3 to 4 times a year, as they are easier to remove when young.^^^
|
||
Harvesting — Fruits should be gathered by hand from bushes as soon as edges of husks
|
||
turn brown. Fruits should be spread out in a thin layer to dry for a short time, for about 4
|
||
to 6 days. Then husks are removed by flailing. The nuts, which are the commençai seeds,
|
||
may be sown, stratified, or stored. Storage in sealed containers at 5°C will retain some
|
||
viability in C. cornuta for at least 2 years.
|
||
Yields and economics — Beaked filberts yield well every 2 to 5 years, and give a light
|
||
crop every year. Great quantities of hazelnuts are gathered each year for local home-use in
|
||
northeastern and northwestern U.S. and Canada. Many more are used as food for wildlife.
|
||
No exact figures are available on production. Hazelnuts are usually sold as mixed nuts,
|
||
especially during the winter months and holidays.^^^
|
||
Energy — Probably no more promising than other C ory lus species for energy potential.
|
||
Biotic factors — Most filbert varieties are self-unfruitful, even though staminate and
|
||
pistillate catkins are on the same tree or bush. Cross-pollination must be provided for
|
||
satisfactory fruit production. In all plantings, two or more varieties should be included. The
|
||
period of pistillate flowering is usually much longer than that of pollen-shedding on a
|
||
particular variety. Furthermore, pollen on one variety must be shed at the time when pistillate
|
||
flowers of the other variety are receptive. The following fungi are known to attack beaked
|
||
filberts or hazelnut plants: A pioporth e anom ala, C ercospora corylina, C ucurbitaria con-
|
||
globata, D iaporth e decedens, D ia tryp ella m inutispora, G loeosporium coryli, G. rostratum ,
|
||
G nom oniella coryli, H ym enochaete agglutinans, M elanconis fla vo viren s, M icrosph aeria
|
||
alni, N ectria coryli, P ezicu la corylina, P hyllactin ia corylea, P hym atotrichum om nivorum ,
|
||
P olysporus albellus, P . elegans, P. radiatus, P . stereoides, S eptoria corylina, and Sphaer-
|
||
opsis corylii. Among the insect pests, hazelnut weevil, in severe infestations, may completely
|
||
destroy the crop of nuts. Leaves are preferred food for Japanese beetles, and plants may be
|
||
completely defoliated by them. Filbert bud mite may be a pest problem. For control of all
|
||
pests, consult local State agent.
|
||
128 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
CORYLUS FEROX Wall. (BETULACEAE) — Himalayan or Tibetan Filbert
|
||
Syn.: Corylus tibetica Ratal, {thibetica) and Corylus ferox var. thibetica Franch.
|
||
Uses — Kernel of nut edible, used raw, roasted, or in cookery, and as a flavoring.
|
||
Folk medicine — No data available.
|
||
Chemistry — No data available.
|
||
Description — Deciduous tree to 10 m tall; young branches silky-hairy; leaves 7.5 to
|
||
12.5 cm long, oblong, ovate to obovate-oblong, usually rounded at base, acuminate, doubly
|
||
serrate, glabrous except along veins beneath, 12 to 14 pairs of veins; involucre glabrescent
|
||
to tomentose, forming a spiny bur about 3 cm across, longer than nut, consisting of 2 distinct
|
||
bracts; nuts from about twice in diameter as long to twice as long as wide.^^®
|
||
Germplasm — Reported from the China-Japan Center of Diversity, Himalayan filbert,
|
||
or CVS thereof, is reported to tolerate frost and slope. (2n = 22,28.)^^
|
||
Distribution — Native to central and western China to Tibet and central Himalaya, up
|
||
to 3,300 m altitude.
|
||
Ecology — Ranging from Warm Temperate to Moist Forest Life Zones, Himalayan filbert
|
||
is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 12.0 dm, annual temperature of 14.8°C, and
|
||
pH of 5.5.®^ Thrives in temperate forests on well-drained soils.
|
||
Cultivation — This filbert is rarely cultivated, but rather, trees are taken care of in the
|
||
forest. Propagation is by natural distribution of seeds.
|
||
Harvesting — Nuts are collected from native trees in the forest in the fall. Drying and
|
||
storage procedures are about the same as for other filberts.
|
||
Yields and economics — No yield data available. Locally in central Asia, these filberts
|
||
are gathered and sold in local markets. They do not enter international trade.
|
||
Energy — Not a promising energy species.
|
||
Biotic factors — No data available.
|
||
129
|
||
CORYLUS HETEROPHYLLA Fisch. ex Besser (BETULACEAE) — Siberian Filbert
|
||
Uses — Kernels of nuts used raw, roasted, cooked, or in confections.
|
||
Folk medicine — Reported to be aperitif and digestive.
|
||
Chemistry — No data available.
|
||
Description — Deciduous shrub or small tree to 4 m tall; branchlets pubescent and
|
||
glandular-pilose when young; leaves 5 to 12 cm long and about as wide, orbicular-obovate
|
||
to deltoid-obovate, cordate at base, nearly truncate and abruptly acuminate at apex and with
|
||
a very short point, margins irregularly toothed or incisely serrate, green on both sides,
|
||
glabrous above, pubescent on veins beneath, petioles up to 13 cm long, pubescent and
|
||
glandular-pilose; involucre companulate, 2.5 to 3.5 cm long, somewhat longer than nut,
|
||
striate, glandular-setose near base, lobes of bracts entire or sparingly dentate, triangular;
|
||
nuts 1 to 3 in a cluster, at ends of branchlets, on stalks to 3 cm long, subglobose, about
|
||
1.5 cm across. Flowers May; fruits August.
|
||
Germplasm — Reported from the China-Japan and Eurosiberian Centers of Diversity,
|
||
Siberian filbert, or cvs thereof, is reported to tolerate frost, low pH, and slope.Several
|
||
botanical varieties are known, and some are cultivated in northern Asia. C. heterophylla
|
||
var. yezoensis Koidz. (C. yezoensis (Koidz.) Nakai) — leaves obovate-orbicular to broadly
|
||
obovate, abruptly short acuminate, rarely glandular-pilose; involucres sparsely glandular-
|
||
pilose; Japan (Hokkaido, Honshu, Kyushu). Other varieties are var. thunbergii Blume, var.
|
||
crista-galli Burkill, var. setchuensis Franch., and var. yunnanensis Franch.®^’^^® (2n = 28.)
|
||
Distribution — Native to eastern Siberia, eastern Mongolia, Manchuria, northern China
|
||
(Tschili), Ussuri, Amur, Korea; introduced and cultivated in Japan and France; probably
|
||
elsewhere.
|
||
Ecology — Ranging from Cool Temperate to Moist through Warm Temperate Dry to
|
||
Moist Forest Life Zones, Siberian filbert is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 12.0
|
||
to 14.7 dm (mean of 2 cases = 13.4), annual temperature of 14.8 to 14.8°C (mean of 2
|
||
cases == 14.8°C), and pH of 5.3 to 5.5 (mean of 2 cases = 5.4).®^ Naturally found along
|
||
woods and on mountain slopes, often forming dense thickets. Thrives in cool temperate
|
||
regions on soil with good drainage.
|
||
Cultivation — Modest requirements greatly facilitate cultivation. Propagated from seed,
|
||
usually distributed naturally in the forest, and by suckers. The most elementary care of wild
|
||
stands results in considerable improvement in yield and quality of nuts.^^®
|
||
Harvesting — Nuts are probably collected in the fall.
|
||
Yields and economics — Nuts harvested commercially in Northern Asia, usually from
|
||
wild plants only. Does not enter international markets; usually marketed locally.
|
||
Energy — Not a promising energy species.
|
||
Biotic factors — No data available.
|
||
130 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
CO RYLU S MAXIMA Mill. (BETULACEAE) Giant or Lambert’s Filbert
|
||
Syn.: C orylu s tu bu losa Willd.
|
||
Uses — Widely cultivated for the nuts in Europe; used as roasted or salted nuts, or as
|
||
flavoring in confections and pastries. Sometimes naturalized, and of some interest as an
|
||
ornamental, especially the red-leaved form, found in parks in the Caucasus. This species is
|
||
considered the progenitor in Europe from which most cultivated filberts have been developed:
|
||
C. avellana is more often called the cobnut.
|
||
Folk medicine — No data available.
|
||
Chemistry — No data available.
|
||
Description — Deciduous shrub or small tree, up to 10 m tall; branches somtimes glabrous,
|
||
mostly stipitate-glandular; leaves 7.5 to 15 cm long, 6 to 10 cm broad, orbicular, cordate
|
||
at base, short-acuminate, slightly lobed, doubly serrate, very often red, pubescent beneath;
|
||
petiole 1 to 2.5 cm long; staminate aments to 10 cm long,l cm in diameter; involucre tubular,
|
||
contracted above the nut, forming a gradually narrowed elongated deeply laciniate husk,
|
||
dentate at apex, finely pubescent outside, lower part fleshy, enveloping nut, splitting at
|
||
maturity; nut ovoid, sometimes subcylindrical, acuminate; kernel with thin red or white
|
||
skin. Flowers March; fruits September.
|
||
Germplasm — Reported from the Central Asia and Near East Centers of Diversity, giant
|
||
filbert, or cvs thereof, is reported to tolerate frost, low pH, and slope. C. maxim a var.
|
||
purpurea Rehd. (C. avellana (var.)pu rpurea Loud., C. m axim a var. atropurpúrea Dochnahl)
|
||
has dark purple-red leaves. There are many varieties with large nuts. Cultivated forms are
|
||
partly hybrids with C. avellana, (2n = 22,28.)^^’^^®
|
||
Distribution — Native to southeastern Europe, from Italy and Yugoslavia to Greece,
|
||
Turkey, and western Asia. Widely cultivated elsewhere in Europe and sometimes naturalized.
|
||
Cultivated in Crimea and on the Black Sea Coast for more than a century.
|
||
Ecology — Ranging from Cool Temperate Wet through Warm Temperate Moist to Wet
|
||
Forest Life Zones, the giant filbert is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 6.3 to 16.7
|
||
dm (mean of 2 cases = 10.5 dm), annual temperature of 9.7 to 14.8°C (mean of 2 cases
|
||
= 12.3°C), and pH of 5.3 to 6.8 (mean of 2 cases = 6.1). Thrives in a cool to warm
|
||
temperate climate under soil and climatic conditions similar to those for C. avellana.
|
||
Cultivation — See C orylus am ericana.
|
||
Harvesting — The harvesting of nuts begins in September. The beaked involucre must
|
||
be removed by hand, and then the nuts are dried for storage until marketed or used. After
|
||
removing the husk, nuts are spread out to dry in thin layers in a dry place having good air-
|
||
circulation. Nuts dried in an unheated building usually require 4 to 6 weeks for drying. They
|
||
should be stirred frequently to prevent molding. The temperature of nuts dried by artificial
|
||
heat should not be higher than 45°C; otherwise they will not store well.^^®
|
||
Yields and economics — The species and its cultivars and hybrids are reported to be
|
||
good producers. Southeastern Europe and southwestern Asia, especially Crimea and the
|
||
Black Sea Region, are major producers. However, this filbert is not separated from the
|
||
Turkish and other filberts grown in the region. Prices vary from $125 to $150/ton for Turkish
|
||
filberts. About 240,000 MT of nuts are produced annually in Turkey and adjacent areas.
|
||
Energy — Although not a promising energy species, this is one of the better species of
|
||
C orylus for energy production.
|
||
Biotic factors — Fungi known to attack this filbert include: M ycosph aerella puntiform is,
|
||
P hyllactinia corylea, and Sphaeragnm onia carpinea. The bacterium, X anthom onas coryli,
|
||
also attack the plant. In some areas, winter injury may be serious. Pests include: Lecanium
|
||
corni (soft scale) and M yzocallis coryli (aphids).
|
||
131
|
||
COULA EDULIS Baill. (OLACACEAE) — African Walnut, Gabon Nut, Almond Wood
|
||
Uses — The fruits, sold in Cameroon markets, have agreeably edible kernels, resembling
|
||
hazelnuts or chestnuts. They are eaten fresh, boiled in the shell, roasted, boiled, and pounded
|
||
and made into cakes. Some tribes ferment the fruits underground. The timber is red to
|
||
reddish-brown, closegrained, hard, heavy, resistant to water, and immune to insects, e.g.,
|
||
termites, through liable to split. Suitable for house posts, railway sleepers, bridge-piles, and
|
||
charcoal, it has been suggested for heavy carpentry, stair treads, doors, turnery, and boat
|
||
and carriage construction. Durable under water, the wood can be used for bridges and
|
||
pilings.T he fruit shells make finger-rings in Nigeria.
|
||
Folk medicine — The stomachic bark decoction is used for dysentery in Liberia. Powdered
|
||
bark is used in Equatorial Africa for dressing sores, and in decoctions to stimulate appetite
|
||
and counteract anemia, or in enemas for dysentery. Liberians believe the fruits eliminate
|
||
boils.
|
||
Chemistry — Per 100 g, the seed (ZMB) is reported to contain 505 calories, 7.9 g protein,
|
||
25.7 g fat, 64.3 g total carbohydrate, 2.4 g fiber, 2.1 g ash, 180 mg Ca, and 269 mg P.®^
|
||
DalzieF^ and Irvine^"^^ suggest that the oil content is closer to 50 than 25%. The seed fat is
|
||
very high in oleic acid (87 to 95%), with 3% linoleic, and 1.7% palmitic + stearic acids.
|
||
Menninger cites a source suggesting 87% oleic.
|
||
Toxicity — Leaves said to be poisonous.W ood can cause allergy or asthma in wood
|
||
workers.^'^
|
||
Description — Medium-sized tree to 20 m tall and 2 m girth; crown deep, dense; buttresses
|
||
132 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
slight or none; bark fairly smooth, thin, brownish-green; slash brown or yellow, white and
|
||
resinous in young trees, darkening to pink; young parts reddish-brown-hairy. Leaves 30 x
|
||
8 cm, often rusty, papery, elliptic to oblong-elliptic, glabrous, alternate; tip long-caudate-
|
||
acuminate; base cuneate; midrib slightly raised above; lateral nerves up to 14 pairs, sub
|
||
parallel, sunken above and raised below; petiole 2 to 3 cm long, usually twisted, rusty-
|
||
puberulous. Flowers (April to May, October to January) in rusty-brown axillary panicles;
|
||
calyx small, cup-shaped; petals 5, fairly thick; stamens 10. Fruit a drupe, ellipsoid-globose,
|
||
4 X 3 cm, nut-shell hard, rough ca. 4 mm thick, breaking into 3 portions when ripe, difficult
|
||
to break.
|
||
Germplasm — Reported from the African Center of Diversity.
|
||
Distribution — Sierra Leone to Gabon and Zaire; Liberia, Ivory Coast, Gold Coast,
|
||
Nigeria, Cameroon.
|
||
Ecology — Reported from evergreen and deciduous forests, gabon nut is estimated to
|
||
range from Subtropical Dry to Wet through Tropical Dry to Moist Forest Life Zones,
|
||
tolerating annual precipitation of 8 to 35 dm, annual temperature of 23 to 28°C, and pH of
|
||
6.0 to 8.0.
|
||
Cultivation — Can be grown as a plantation timber crop with the oil or nut as a by
|
||
product.
|
||
Harvesting — In Angola, north of the Congo River, the nuts mature from December to
|
||
April.In Nigeria, it flowers January to May, fruiting in August.
|
||
Yields and economics — Apparently sold only in Cameroon markets.
|
||
Energy — The wood is suitable for charcoal*'*^ and it is so used in Gabon. The extremely
|
||
hard wood has a density of 1.073.
|
||
Biotic factors — The wood is termite resistant.
|
||
133
|
||
CYCAS CIRCINALIS L. (CYCADACEAE) — Cica, Crazier Cycas
|
||
Uses — Speaking of Cycads in general, Egolf (in Menninger^®’) says
|
||
Cycad nuts are rather large, many of them an inch across. They are fat and rounded, full of
|
||
starch, and mostly covered by a brilliant orange or reddish outer coat. They look as if they
|
||
are meant to be good to eat. The poisonous substance in Cycads is soluble in water. It can
|
||
be leached from the nuts or from the starchy center of the trunk by water, rendering them
|
||
fit to eat. It is impossible now to tell what primitive genius first discovered that such tempting
|
||
nuts could be made free of their poison. Perhaps some tribesman, wits sharpened by hunger,
|
||
found that Cycad nuts shed into a jungle pool, partially decomposed by water, could be eaten
|
||
whereas those fresh from the plant could not. Where the nuts are eaten they may be treated
|
||
whole, with repeated changes of water, and then beaten to a flour for cooking, or the raw
|
||
nuts may be beaten and the pulp washed in water and strained through a cloth . . . However
|
||
it happened, in nearly every tropical country where Cycads grow men sooner or later found
|
||
they could use the nuts for food. They are not an important staple, because nowhere do
|
||
Cycads grow in dense profusion, but in times of famine, when there is little else to eat, they
|
||
are as welcome as the finest delicacy.
|
||
In Guam, they eat the green husk, fresh or dried, or they cut, soak, and sun-dry it. Indians
|
||
eat the fruit with sugar. In Java, Sumatra, Sri Lanka, and the Phillipines, the shoots and
|
||
leaves are used as a potherb. In Fiji they boil the kernels until they are soft. Indochinese
|
||
pound, soak, settle, and dry the kernels. Africans split the seeds, sun dry them for ca. 4
|
||
days, ferment them in a tin with banana leaves for a week, remove the mold, soak another
|
||
day, pulverize, and use as a porridge.Sap from the kernels has been said to be given to
|
||
children in the Celebes for “ population control.” Crushed seed also used to poison fish. A
|
||
gum can be extracted from breaks in the megasporophylls.^*^ Surface fibers from the leaves
|
||
have been made into cloth.
|
||
Folk medicine — Reported to be carminative, narcotic, and poison, C. circinalis is a
|
||
folk remedy for nausea, sores, swellings, and thirst. Terminal buds are crushed in rice-water
|
||
for adenitis, furuncles, and ulcerous sores. Seeds are applied to malignant and varicose
|
||
wounds and ulcers. Seeds are squeezed and grafted onto tropical ulcers in Guam. The gum
|
||
is used for snakebite in India. Filipinos roast and grate the seeds, applying them in coconut
|
||
oil to boils, itch, and wounds. Indians poultice the female cones onto nephritic pain, using
|
||
the male bracts as aphrodisiac, anodyne, and narcotic. The gum, which expands many times
|
||
in water, is said to produce rapid suppuration when applied to malignant ulcers. The gum
|
||
also has a reputation for treating bugbite and snakebite.
|
||
Chemistry — Seeds contain ca. 31% starch,-2 toxic glycoside, pakoeine, phytosterin,
|
||
and a reducing sugar.^° The pollen is said to be narcotic. Seeds possess antibiotic activity.
|
||
Sequoyitol is also reported, as is alpha-amino-beta-methylaminopropionic acid.
|
||
Caution — FATALITIES are attributed to eating improperly prepared nuts. Many of
|
||
Captain’s Cook’s voyagers vomited following the ingestion of cycad nuts. Symptoms of
|
||
poisoning include headache, violent retching, vertigo, swelling of the stomach and legs,
|
||
depression, stupor, euphoria, diarrhea, abdominal cramps, tenesmus, muscle paralysis, and
|
||
rheumatism.
|
||
Description — Evergreen ornamental shrub or small tree to 6 m tall, unbranched except
|
||
by accident, such as cutting of apex. Trunk stout with hard outer layer like bark, light
|
||
brown-gray, slightly scaly, becoming slightly fissured. Leaves apically crowded with stout
|
||
axis with 2 rows of short spines replacing leaflets toward base. Leaflets thick, stiff, hairless,
|
||
mostly opposite, 15 to 30 cm long, 1 to 2 cm broad, straight or curved, long-pointed at
|
||
apex, with prominent yellowish midvein, but without other visible veins. Male cones large,
|
||
brown, hard, and woody. Female trees produce a ring of light-brown wooly fertile leaves
|
||
6 to 12 inches long. Each leaf bears in notches along the axis 4 to 10 naked elliptic or nut
|
||
like seeds, hard with thin outer flesh.
|
||
134 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
Germplasm — Reported from the African and Indochina-Indonesian Centers of Diversity,
|
||
cica, or CVS thereof, is reported to tolerate some shade and waterlogging.
|
||
Distribution — Old World Tropics, Native from Tropical Africa through southern Asia
|
||
and Pacific Islands. Pantropically introduced.
|
||
Ecology — Estimated to range from Subtropical Dry to Moist through Tropical Dry to
|
||
Wet Forest Life Zones, cica is estimated to tolerate annual precipitation of 10 to 50 dm,
|
||
annual temperature of 21 to 26°C, and pH of 6.0 to 8.0. Hardy to Zone 10b.
|
||
Cultivation — Rarely cultivated for food, more often cultivated as an ornamental. Easily
|
||
propagated from suckers or sprouts at the base of parent plants. Grows slowly.
|
||
Harvesting — For sago starch, the trunks should be felled before fruiting (usually at
|
||
about 7 years). Since the felling of the trunk precludes fruiting, it follows that seeds are
|
||
harvested from older trees.
|
||
Yields and economics — A cycas is said to produce annually ca. 550 seeds, yielding
|
||
about as much starch (ca. 2 kg) as an irreplaceable stem ca. 1 m long. Extraction of starch
|
||
from the seeds is said to be more economical.
|
||
Energy — Since felling these trees is fatal, they are rarely, if ever, used as energy sources.
|
||
Biotic factors — No data available.
|
||
135
|
||
CYCAS REVOLUTA Thunb. (CYCADACEAE) — Cycad Nut, Sotesu Nut
|
||
Uses—(see Cycas circinalis.) Exported from Japan as an ornamental, used in Japan for
|
||
bonsai. According to Thieret,^*^ the fleshy testa (sweet and mucilaginous) and the starchy
|
||
kernels are both eaten. The roasted kernels, like so many other nondescripts, are said to
|
||
taste like chestnuts. Seeds are eaten by the Annamese of China, though preparation is tough.
|
||
Japanese use the young leaves as a potherb,and the cycad meal as a food extender and
|
||
for the preparation of sake, the sake called doku sake, or poisonous sake. A sago starch is
|
||
extracted from the pith and cortex of the stem before fruiting. It has been said, perhaps
|
||
exaggerated, that a small portion of the pith can support life for a long time. Gum is extracted
|
||
from wounds on the megasporophylls.^’^ Surface fibers from the leaves have been made
|
||
into cloth. Leaves are used for funeral decorations.^^
|
||
Folk medicine — Reported to be emmenagogue, expectorant, fattening, and tonic, C.
|
||
revoluta is a folk remedy for hepatoma and tumors.^' The down from the inflorescence has
|
||
been used as a styptic, the terminal shoot as astringent, and diuretic. Seeds used as astringent,
|
||
emmenagogue, expectorant, and tonic, used for rheumatism.*^ “ The products extracted from
|
||
the seeds are useful to inhibit growth of malignant tumors. The gum, which expands
|
||
many times in water, is said to produce rapid suppuration when applied to malignant ulcers.
|
||
The gum also has a reputation for treating bugbite and snakebite.
|
||
Chemistry — Thieret^’^ reports the kernels contain 12 to 14% CP and 66 to 70% starch.
|
||
Whiting^^* reports that fresh kernels contain 7% protein, 33% starch, dry kernels 12% protein,
|
||
60% starch, the pith 7 and 41, the fresh outer husk of the seed 4 and 21, the dry outer husk
|
||
10% protein, and 46% starch. Airdry stems contain 44.5% starch and 9.15% CP. Male
|
||
plants run 27 to 61% starch, averaging over 50% over the year; female stems average only
|
||
26%. Root nodules contain about 18% starch. Formaldehyde is reported from the kernels,
|
||
but cycasin (C8H16O7N2) is probably the culprit, in both nuts and pith. Thieret^^ reports that
|
||
the testa contains ca. 4% oil, the seeds 20 to 23.5% oil (an oil used during crises on Okinawa
|
||
during World War II). Duke and Ayensu^ report the seeds (ZMB) contain 13.9 to 15.4 g
|
||
protein, and 0.9 to 1.0 g fat. Also reported to contain 14% crude protein, 68% soluble non-
|
||
nitrogenous substances, and 0.16 to 0.22% combined formaldehyde, 90% of which can be
|
||
washed out with water. Seeds may yield 20.44% fat, the component fatty acids of which
|
||
are palmitic-, stearic-, oleic-, and a small amount of behenic-acid. Seeds contain 0.2 to
|
||
0.3% neocycasin A, neocycasin B, and macrozamin, and cycasin. Trunk contains mucilage
|
||
with xylose, glucose, and galactose. The wax composition is detailed in Hager’s Hand
|
||
book.'*^ Cycasin is carcinogenic to pigs and rats if ingested orally.*^ It also induces chro
|
||
mosomal aberrations in onion root tips.
|
||
Caution — FATALITIES are attributed to eating improperly prepared nuts.
|
||
Description — Trunk 1.8 m, densely clothed with the old leaf-bases. Leaves 0.6 to 1.8
|
||
m long; petiole thick, quadrangular; leaflets narrow, margin re volute. Carpophylls 10 to 23
|
||
cm long, blade ovate, laciniate nearly to midrib, stalk longer than blade, with 4 to 6 ovules.
|
||
Immature seed densely tomentose.'^^
|
||
Germplasm — Reported from the Sino-Japanese Center of Diversity, this cycad, or cvs
|
||
thereof, is reported to tolerate drought, floods, poor soil, slope, and typhoons.
|
||
Distribution — China, S. Japan, Formosa, Tonkin. Cultivated in Indian gardens.
|
||
Ecology — Estimated to range from Warm Temperate Dry (without frost) to Wet through
|
||
Tropical Dry to Wet Forest Life zones, C. revoluta is estimated to tolerate annual precipitation
|
||
of 8 to 40 dm, annual temperature of 17 to 25°C, and pH of 6.0 to 8.5. Tolerates the poorer
|
||
steep soils of the Ryukyu’s. Hardy to Zone 9.^"^^
|
||
Cultivation — Rarely cultivated for food, more often cultivated as an ornamental. Easily
|
||
propagated from suckers or sprouts at the base of parent plants. Grows slowly.
|
||
Harvesting — For sago starch, the trunks should be felled before fruiting (usually at
|
||
136 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
about 7 years). Since the felling of the trunk precludes fruiting, it follows that seeds are
|
||
harvested from older trees.
|
||
Yields and economics — Thieret^'^ reported that an estimated 3 million cycas leaves
|
||
with a gross value of ca. $30,000 were imported annually to the U.S.
|
||
Energy — Since felled trees do not coppice, these trees are rarely, if ever, used as energy
|
||
sources.
|
||
Biotic factors — In the Ryukyu Islands, the poisonous habu viper nests in the top of this
|
||
cycad.
|
||
137
|
||
CYCAS RUMPHII Miq. (CYCADACEAE) — Pakoo Adji, Pakis Adji, Pahoo Hadji, Akor
|
||
Uses — (See Cyas circinalis.) A well-known oriental ornamental, this fem-like tree is
|
||
often planted, e.g., in cemeteries. The young shoots, shortly before unfolding, are cooked
|
||
as a potherb, often with fish. Eating too much is said to cause rheumatism. The poisonous
|
||
nuts are rendered edible by various types of elaborate processing. Steeping in water seems
|
||
to be one of the most common methods of preparation. In the Moluccas, a delicacy is made
|
||
by cutting the kernels into bars, putting them in a porous bag, and steeping in sea-water for
|
||
a few days. Then the bars are sun dried, pulverized in a basket, and mixed with brown
|
||
sugar and coconut. The starchy pith and cortex of the stem may be eaten after cooking.
|
||
Stems for “ sago” starch should be harvested before fruiting. Gums are extracted from
|
||
wounded megasporophylls.^*^ Stems are used in Indonesia to build small houses.
|
||
Folk medicine — A folk remedy for colic in Java.^‘ The resin is applied to malignant
|
||
ulcers, exciting suppuration in an incredibly short time. In Cambodia, the leafless bulb is
|
||
brayed in water, rice-water, or water holding fine particles of clay in suspension, and applied
|
||
to ulcerated wounds, swollen glands, and boils. The gum also has a reputation for treating
|
||
bugbite and snakebite.
|
||
Chemistry — Probably parallels that of Cycas revoluta.
|
||
Description — Small, dioecious gummiferous tree, 1 to 6 m high, rarely higher. Trunk
|
||
terete, armored by the persistent petiole bases. Leaves in a dense terminal whorl, glabrous,
|
||
shortly petioled, pinnate, with 50 to 150 pairs patent leaflets, glaucous, shining above, 1.5
|
||
to 2.5 m long; leaflets linear-lanceolate, usually somewhat recurved; 1-nerved; the central
|
||
leaflets 20 to 35 cm long, 1 to 2 cm wide, the lower ones gradually shorter and narrower;
|
||
armed on the edges. Male cone stalked, oblong-ellipsoid, yellowish-brown, 30 to 70 cm
|
||
long, 12 to 17 cm wide, with numerous spirally arranged stamens; stamens cuneate with
|
||
upcurved acuminate tips, 3.5 to 6 cm long; the higher ones smaller, anantherous. Female
|
||
cone terminal, after anthesis producing new leaves at the apex; carpophylls numerous, densely
|
||
crowded, densely yellowish-brown tomentose along the edges with 2 to 9 big, short ovules,
|
||
25 to 50 cm long; tips of the carpophylls oblong, serrate, terminated by a long, entire,
|
||
upcurved point. Seeds ellipsoid or ovoid-ellipsoid, orange when ripe, 3 to 6 cm long, 2.5
|
||
to 5 cm diam.^^®
|
||
Germplasm — Reported from the Indochinese-Indonesian and Australian Centers of
|
||
Diversity.
|
||
138 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
Distribution — Burma, Malaya, Andamans, Nicobars, Moluccas, New Guinea, and N.
|
||
Australia, cultivated in India.
|
||
Ecology — Estimated to range from Subtropical Dry to Moist through Tropical Dry to
|
||
Wet Forest Life Zones, C. rumphii is estimated to tolerate annual precipitation of 10 to 50
|
||
dm, annual temperature of 21 to 26°C, and pH of 6.0 to 8.0.
|
||
Cultivation — Rarely cultivated for food, more often cultivated as an ornamental. Easily
|
||
propagated from suckers or sprouts at the base of parent plants. Grows slowly.
|
||
Harvesting — For sago starch, the trunks should be felled before fruiting (usually at
|
||
about 7 years). Since the felling of the trunk precludes fruiting, it follows that seeds are
|
||
harvested from older trees.
|
||
Yields and Economics — A cycas is said to produce annually ca. 550 seeds, yielding
|
||
about as much renewable starch (ca. 2 kg) as an irreplaceable stem ca. 1 m long. Extraction
|
||
of starch from the seeds is hence said to be more economical.
|
||
Energy — Rarely, if ever, used as energy sources.
|
||
Biotic Factors — No data available.
|
||
139
|
||
CYPERUS ESCULENTUS L. (CYPERACEAE) — Tigemut, Yellow Nutsedge, Chufa
|
||
Uses — Grown for the edible tubers, eaten when dry, raw, boiled, or roasted. Juice
|
||
pressed from fresh tubers is consumed in quantities in Europe, especially in Spain, as a
|
||
beverage, called Horchata de Chufas; sometimes it is chilled or frozen. Nuts used as substitute
|
||
for coffee; or for almonds in confectionery, or made into a kind of chocolate. In Africa,
|
||
nuts used in the form of milk pap, made by grinding fresh nuts fine and straining; then
|
||
boiling with wheat flour and sugar. Roasted nuts are ground and sieved to produce a fine
|
||
meal, a high caloric value, which is added along with sugar and other ingredients to water
|
||
as a beverage, or even eaten dry. Oil used for soap-making.^^* Used as a famine food.^^^
|
||
The haulm is grazed by stock, plaited into rough ropes in Lesotho, and is suitable for making
|
||
paper pulp.^^ Tubers are relished by hogs, which are used to suppress the plant when it
|
||
becomes w e e d y .It has already infested more than 1,000,000 ha in the eastern U.S.*^^
|
||
Folk medicine — According to Hartwell,the tubers are used in folk remedies for
|
||
felons and cancers. Reported to be aphrodisiac, astringent, CNS-sedative, CNS-tonic, dia
|
||
phoretic, diuretic, emmenagogue, emollient, excitant, lactagog, pectoral, puerperium, re
|
||
frigerant, sedative, stimulant, stomachic, sweetener, and tonic, tigemut is a folk remedy for
|
||
140 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
abscess, boils, cancer, colds, colic, felons, and flux.^* Medicinally, tubers are stimulant
|
||
and aphrodisiac.Decoction of rhizomes (including tubers) taken in Senegal for stomach
|
||
troubles; leaves poulticed onto forehead for migraine. In Lesotho, heavy consumption said
|
||
to cause constipation.^^ Young Zulu girls eat porridge mixed with a handful of boiled,
|
||
mashed root to hasten the inception of menstruation. Root chewed by the Zulu for relief of
|
||
indigestion, especially when accompanied by halitosis.
|
||
Chemistry — Per 100 g, the root (ZMB) is reported to contain 461 to 476 calories, 5.5
|
||
to 6.5 g protein, 20.0 to 27.4 g fat, 65.1 to 72.6 g total carbohydrate, 10.5 to 11.7 g fiber,
|
||
1.9 to 2.8 g ash, 39.4 to 87.5 mg Ca, 230 to 321 mg P, 3.6 to 12.6 mg Fe, 0.13 to 0.44
|
||
mg thiamine, 0.14 mg riboflavin, 2.05 mg niacin, and 4.7 mg ascorbic acid.*^ Tubers contain
|
||
20 to 36% of a nondrying, pleasant tasting edible oil, similar to olive oil.^^^ Another analysis
|
||
of tubers reported 14.15% moisture, 25.82% oil, 5.21% albuminoids, 22.72% starch, 24.79%
|
||
digestible carbohydrates, 5.83% fiber, 1.48% mineral matter. The oil is reported to contain
|
||
17.1% saturated acids and 75.8% unsaturated acids. The component fatty acids are: 0.01%
|
||
myristic, 11.8% palmitic, 5.2% stearic, 0.5% arachidic, 0.3% linoceric, 73.3% oleic, and
|
||
5.9% linoleic.^® Burkill'^^ reports the oil to be 73% oleic acid, 12 to 13% palmitic acid, 6
|
||
to 8% linoleic acid, 5 to 6% stearic acid. Raw tubers of the genus C yperus have been
|
||
reported to contain per 100 g, 302 calories, 36.5% moisture, 3.5 g protein, 12.7 g fat, 46.1
|
||
g carbohydrate, 7.4 g fiber, 1.2 g ash, 25 mg calcium, 204 mg phosphorus, 8.0 mg iron,
|
||
0.28 mg thiamine, 0.09 mg riboflavin, 1.3 mg niacin, and 3 mg ascorbic acid. Dried tubers
|
||
are reported to contain 452 calories, 11.8% moisture, 4.0 g protein, 25.3 g fat, 56.9 g
|
||
carbohydrate, 4.7 g fiber, 2.0 g ash, 48 mg calcium, 212 mg phosphorus, 3.2 mg iron,
|
||
0.23 mg thiamine, 0.10 mg riboflavin, 1.1 mg niacin, and 6 mg ascorbic acid.^^
|
||
Toxicity — Contains cineole, hydrocyanic acid, and myristic acid.^^
|
||
Description — Perennial herb, forming colonies with creeping thread-like rhizomes 1 to
|
||
1.5 mm thick; some forms have tuber-like thickenings on rhizomes, these plants rarely
|
||
flower. Tubers 1 to 2 cm long, roots fibrous; culms erect, 2 to 9 dm tall, simple, triangular.
|
||
Leaves several, 3-ranked, pale green, 4 to 9 mm wide, about as long as culm, with closed
|
||
sheaths mostly basal. Umbel terminal, simple or compound, the longest involucral leaf much
|
||
exceeding the umbel; spikelets 0.5 to 3 cm long, 1.5 to 3 mm broad, yellowish to golden-
|
||
brown, strongly flattened, mostly 4-ranked, occasionally 2-ranked, along the wing-angled
|
||
rachis, blunt, tip acute to round; scales thin, oblong, obtuse, distinctly veined, thin, dry at
|
||
tip, 2.3 to 3 mm long. Achene yellowish-brown, 3-angled, lustrous, ellipsoid or linear to
|
||
oblong-cylindric, rounded at summit, 1.2 to 1.5 mm long, granular-streaked. Flowers July
|
||
to September, fruiting through December in extreme south; various in other parts of the
|
||
world.
|
||
Germplasm — Reported from the Mediterranean Center of Diversity, tigemut, or cvs
|
||
thereof, is reported to tolerate heavy soil, laterite, salt, sand, virus, weeds, and waterlogging,
|
||
but not shade.Several botanical varieties are recognized. Two varieties in the U.S. are
|
||
C. esculentus var. angustispicatus Britt., with spikelets less than 2 mm wide, tapering to
|
||
slender points, and C. esculentus var. m acrostachys Boeckl., with spikelets 2 to 3 mm wide,
|
||
uniformly linear and rounded at apex.^^® (2n = 18, 108.)
|
||
Distribution — Cosmopolitan, distributed in tropics, subtropics, and warmer temperate
|
||
regions of world, up to 2,000 m in some areas. Much cultivated in coastal regions of Ghana
|
||
and in some Mediterranean regions.Listed as a serious weed in Angola, Canada, Kenya,
|
||
Malagasy, Mozambique, Peru, South Africa, Tanzania, U.S., and Zimbabwe, a principal
|
||
weed in Australia, Hawaii, India, Mexico, and Switzerland, and a common weed in Ar
|
||
gentina, Iran, Portugal.
|
||
Ecology — Ranging from Cool Temperate Moist to Wet through Tropical Very Dry to
|
||
Moist Forest Life Zones, tigemut is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 1.8 to 27.8
|
||
dm (mean of 35 cases = 10.8), annual temperature of 6.9 to 27.5°C (mean of 34 cases =
|
||
141
|
||
18.6°C), and pH of 4.5 to 8.0 (mean of 29 cases = 6.3).^^ Common in wet soil, often a
|
||
weed in cultivated fields and pastures. Often locally abundant and weedy in sandy disturbed,
|
||
unstable, or loamy soil. Tolerant of nearly any climatic or soil situation, provided there is
|
||
sufficient water. Often limited to low, poorly drained areas in fields.Hardy to Zone 3.^^^
|
||
According to Holm et al.,^^^ the species grows very well “ on all soil types” ; including
|
||
black peat soils, and performs equally well at pH ranges from 5 to 7. More ecological data
|
||
are reported by Holm et al.‘^^
|
||
Cultivation — Reproduces by seeds and weak thread-like stolons. Propagated in spring
|
||
by planting small tubers or chufas, similar to potatoes. Crop requires no cultivation or
|
||
fertilizers.
|
||
Harvesting — Tubers are harvested 5 to 6 months after planting. Two crops can be
|
||
attained in rainy season. Chufa Oil is obtained by pressing cleaned tubers.
|
||
Yields and economics — One tuber weighing 200 mg can produce 36 plants and 332
|
||
tubers in 16 weeks, 1,900 plants and 7,000 tubers in one year. Holm et al.*^^ report as much
|
||
as 18 MT/ha tubers in the top 45 cm soil, with perhaps 30,000,000 tubers per hectare.
|
||
Yields of 800 kg root per hectare in 4 to 6 months have been rep o rted .Cyperus esculentus
|
||
is a serious weed in sugarcane in Hawaii, Puerto Rico, South Africa, and Swaziland; of
|
||
com in Angola, South Africa, Tanzania, and the U.S.; of cotton in Mozambique, the U.S.,
|
||
and Zimbabwe; of soybeans in Canada and the U.S.; and of potatoes in Canada, South
|
||
Africa, and the U.S. More data are presented by Holm et
|
||
Energy — Although 18 MT tubers/ha might sound like good energy potential, it takes a
|
||
lot of energy to harvest them. Perhaps it is energetically wise to let pigs do the harvesting.
|
||
Leaving a field fallow 4 years has reduced tuber numbers significantly (912 to 7 per 30
|
||
cm^), the equivalent of 21 to 1.6 MT/ha.Savel’eva et al.^^^ have considered this as a
|
||
possible raw material for industry in Russia.
|
||
Biotic factors — Bees visit the flowers in Sierra Leone as a source of pollen.The insect
|
||
Bactra verutana is of interest for biocontrol of the chufa weed. Chufa is an alternative host
|
||
of the vims which produces lucerne dwarf. The following fungi have been reported on
|
||
yellow nutsedge: Aspergillus niger, Puccinia canaliculata, P. conclusa, and P. romagno-
|
||
liana. Nematodes isolated include: Caconema radicicola, Heterodera cyperi, Meloidogyne
|
||
arenaria, and M. In addition, Ascochyta sp. and Phyllachora cyperi have
|
||
been reported.^
|
||
142 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
CYPER U S R O T U N D U S L. (CYPERACEAE) Purple nutsedge
|
||
Uses — Considered the number one weed in many parts of the world,this sedge has
|
||
still been suggested as a landscape plant in China, and as a soil binder in India. Tuberous
|
||
rhizome, eaten in many areas as vegetable or chewed on, may be regarded as a famine food.
|
||
Plants used as fodder for cattle in West Africa and India. Tubers fed to pigs. Used as bait
|
||
for catching rats in Tanganyika. The tuber is burnt as a perfume in Tripoli. In Asia and
|
||
West Africa, the essential oil obtained from tubers, is used as a perfume for clothing and
|
||
to repel insects, probably due to the camphoraceous odor.^^^^^^^^
|
||
Folk medicine — According to Hartwell,purple nutsedge is used in folk remedies for
|
||
phymata, abdominal tumors, glandular tumors, hard tumors, indurations of the stomach,
|
||
liver, spleen, and uterus, and cervical cancer. Reported to be alterative, analgesic, anodyne,
|
||
anthelmintic, antihistamine, aphrodisiac, astringent, bactericide, carminative, demulcent,
|
||
diaphoretic, diuretic, emmenagogue, emollient, fungistatic, lactagogue, stimulant, sto
|
||
machic, tonic, tranquilizer, vasodilator, vermifuge, and vulnerary, purple nutsedge is a folk
|
||
remedy for abdominal ailments, amenorrhea, ascites, bladder ailments, bowel ailments,
|
||
cancer of the cervix, chest ailments, cholera, circulation, colds, congestion, depression,
|
||
diarrhea, dysentery, dysmenorrhea, dyspepsia, fever, headache, hemicrania, hypertension,
|
||
impotence, inflammation, metritis, metroxenia, scorpion bites, snake bites, sores, stomach
|
||
ailments, stomach-ache, toothaches, trauma, tumors of the abdomen, ulcers, and wounds.
|
||
In Mali the tubers are taken as an aphrodisiac. Made into a cough medicine for children.
|
||
Used in Africa and Asia for urinary troubles, indigestion, childbirth, jaundice, malaria, and
|
||
many other conditions.Plant used in Vietnam as a diuretic, emmenagogue, headache
|
||
remedy, and for uterine hemorrhage. The tuber is given to women in childbirth in Indo
|
||
china. The fresh tuber, made into a paste or warm plaster, is applied to the breast with
|
||
galactagogic intent, and, in a dry state to spreading ulcers, in the Indian Peninsula.The
|
||
tuber, in the form of ghees, powders, bolmes, and enemas is used as a folk remedy for
|
||
abdominal tumors. In Ghana, an infusion of the plant is given for cattle poisoning due to
|
||
Ipom oea repens
|
||
Chemistry — Per 100 g, the edible tuber should resemble that of C yperus esculentus,
|
||
which (ZMB) contains 461 to 476 calories, 5.5 to 6.5 g protein, 20.0 to 27.4 g fat, 65.1
|
||
to 72.6 g total carbohydrate, 10.5 to 11.7 g fiber, 1.9 to 2.4 g ash, 29 to 88 mg Ca, 230
|
||
to 321 mg P, 2.6 to 12.6 mg Fe, 0.13 to 0.44 mg thiamine, 0.14 mg riboflavin, 2.05 mg
|
||
niacin, and 5 mg ascorbic acid.®^ Tubers of C yperus rotundus include 0.5 to 1.0% essential
|
||
oil, 0.21 to 0.24% alkaloid, 0.62 to 0.74% cardiac glycosides, 1.25% flavonoids, 1.62%
|
||
polyphenols, 13.22% saccharides, 9.2% starch, 3.72% pectin, 4.21% resin, and 3.25% total
|
||
acids (mostly malic), 0.009% vitamin C. In the essential oil, one finds cyperene-1, cyperene-
|
||
2, patchoulene (CJ5H22O), mutacone (C15H22O), beta-seliene, beta-cyperone, cyperenone,
|
||
1,8-cineole, limonene, beta-pinene, p-cymol, camphene, isocyperol (C,5H240). The fatty
|
||
oil contains glycerol, linolenic, linoleic, oleic, myristic, and possibly stearic acid. The tuber
|
||
also contains a substance capable of dissolving several times its weight in lecithin (and other
|
||
items which cause urinary calculi). Molasses extracted from the tuber contains 41.7% d-
|
||
glucose, 9.3% d-fructose, and 4% nonreducing sugars.Salicylic acid may be extracted
|
||
from leaves and sprouted tubers.
|
||
Description — Perennial herb, forming colonies with long, slender, creeping rhizomes,
|
||
about 1 mm thick, with tuber-like thickenings at intervals, to 1 cm thick; culms slender, 8
|
||
to 60 cm tall, simple, smooth, triangular, longer than leaves. Leaves 2 to 6 mm wide,
|
||
crowded in the basal few centimeters, usually spreading. Inflorescence of simple or slightly
|
||
compound umbels, 3 to 11 cm long, on 3 to 8 extremely unequal peduncles, each bearing
|
||
a cluster of 3 to 9 divaricate spikelets; spikelets 0.8 to 2.5 cm long, chestnut-brown to
|
||
chestnut-purple, acute 12- to 40-flowered; bracts usually 3 or 4, about as long as inflores
|
||
143
|
||
cence; scales keeled, straight, ovate, closely appressed, nerveless except on keel, 2 to 3.5
|
||
mm long, bluntish. Achene linear-oblong, 1.5 mm long, 3-angled, basally and apically
|
||
obtuse, granular, dull, olive-gray to brown, covered with a network of gray lines. Flowers
|
||
July to October or December; January to April in southern hemisphere.
|
||
Germplasm — Reported from the Euro-Siberian and North American Centers of Diver
|
||
sity, purple nutsedge, or cvs thereof, is reported to tolerate alkali, heat, high pH, insects,
|
||
laterite, low pH, salt, and weeds. (2n = 108.)®^ Several ecotypes are recognized. Types
|
||
are described from India with the following variation in glume color: (1) yellowish-white,
|
||
(2) light-red, (3) coppery-red with metallic luster, and (4) dark-red with blackish tinge.
|
||
Distribution — Native to Europe, Japan, and North America; widespread in all tropical,
|
||
subtropical, and warm temperate regions of the world.C. rotundas has been reported
|
||
from more countries, regions, and localities than any other weed in the world.
|
||
Ecology — Ranging from Boreal Moist through Tropical Desert to Wet Forest Life Zones,
|
||
purple nutsedge is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 3.0 to 46.1 dm (mean of 192
|
||
cases = 16.9), annual temperature of 0.0 to 28.6°C (mean of 156 cases = 20.2), and pH
|
||
of 4.3 to 9.1 (mean of 75 cases = 6.4).^^ Continuous shading reduces tuber and bulb
|
||
formation by 10 to 57%. Tubers cannot survive more than 10 days at 45°C or 30 min at
|
||
60°C. Tubers held at 50°C more than 48 hr no longer germinate. Exposure to — 4°C for 8
|
||
hr does not impair viability. Tubers, when dug, contain about 50% moisture. They cannot
|
||
survive when the level falls below 12 to 15%. Some tubers held in water for 200 days still
|
||
germinate satisfactorily when removed from water and placed under suitable growing con
|
||
ditions. Thrives in loamy or sandy soil anywhere; in many places up to 2,000 m altitude.
|
||
In wastelands, gardens, waysides, and in open spots; a troublesome weed in cultivated fields.
|
||
Requires a warm climate, no colder than the southern U.S., especially the Cotton Belt.^^®
|
||
According to Holm et al.^^^ it seems limited by cold temperatures, but other than this, it
|
||
grows in almost every soil type, elevation, humidity, soil moisture, and pH, but it cannot
|
||
stand soils with high salt content. It can survive the highest temperatures known in agriculture.
|
||
Also found on roadsides, in neglected areas, at the edges of woods, sometimes covering
|
||
banks of irrigation canals and streams. Nutsedge can take over entire streams or canals as
|
||
water becomes low. When water supply is low, it may become a problem in paddy rice in
|
||
which puddling of the soil cannot be done thoroughly.
|
||
Cultivation — Propagated by seed and tuber-bearing rhizomes. Because it grows so
|
||
profusely, it is considered more a weed than a plant to be cultivated.
|
||
Harvesting — Plants are harvested from native or naturalized stands. In Africa and Asia
|
||
it is harvested on a small scale for the oil, but in most areas it is allowed to grow wild.^^®
|
||
Flowering has been reported as early as 3 weeks in Israel and India, and 4 weeks in Trinidad,
|
||
with tuber formation occurring at 3 weeks in Hawaii, India, Puerto Rico, Trinidad, and the
|
||
southern U.S. In Israel, clipping every 2 weeks reduced tuber numbers by 60% and weight
|
||
by 85%.'^^
|
||
Yields and economics — ''C yperus rotundas may produce up to 40,000 kilograms of
|
||
subterranean plant material per hectare.” In Mauritius, there may be 30 MT green tops and
|
||
tubers, withdrawing 815 kg/ha ammonium sulfate, 320 kg/ha muriate of potash, and 200
|
||
kg of superphosphate. In Argentina, the weed can reduce sugarcane harvested by 75%, the
|
||
sugar yield by 65%. Allowed to remain in corn-fields for 10 days in Colombia, it reduces
|
||
yield by 10%, 30% in 30 days, suggesting a percentage loss for each day it is allowed to
|
||
remain.
|
||
Energy — The 40 tons of underground plant material, convertible to energy, is perhaps
|
||
most efficiently harvested by grubbing pigs.
|
||
Biotic factors — C yperus rotundas is an alternate host of Fusarium sp. and P uccinia
|
||
canaliculata, of abaca mosaic virus, and of the nematodes M eloidogyne sp. and R otylenchus
|
||
sim ilis. The nutgrass moth, B actra traculenta, which bores into the stems of C yperus
|
||
144 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
rotundas, showed promise for biological control in Hawaii in the early years after its
|
||
introduction from the Phillippines in 1925. As the populations of B actra increased, so also
|
||
did those of the insect Trichogram m a m inutum , which parasitizes the eggs of many moths
|
||
and butterflies. So many of the eggs of B actra were killed that biological control of nutgrass
|
||
was never attained. The jack bean, C anavalia ensiform is, greatly inhibits tuber formation.
|
||
In addition, C intractia m inor, P hyllachora cyperi, P uccinia cyperia, R hizoctonia solanP
|
||
and C intractia peribebu gen sis, H im atia stellifera, and P uccinia cyperi-tergetiformis^^^ are
|
||
reported.
|
||
145
|
||
DETARIUM SENEGALENSE J. F. Gmel. (CAESALPINIACEAE) Tallow Tree
|
||
Syn.: D, heudelotianum Baill.
|
||
Uses — The only seeds and the pulp around them are used as food sources in Africa.
|
||
The pulp can be made into a sweetmeat. The oily kernels, little eaten by humans, are beaten
|
||
into cattle fodder by the Nupe. Ashes of the fruits are used to prepare a snuff. Seeds are
|
||
used for necklaces and girdles. An aromatic resin, exuding from the trunk, is used to fumigate
|
||
African huts and garments. The resin is used as a masticatory and to mend pottery. The
|
||
wood is used for planks and boat-building in Liberia and sold in England as African Ma
|
||
hogany. Roots are boiled on the Gold Coast to prepare a bird-lime. Seeds are burned to
|
||
repel mosquitoes.^^’^^^
|
||
Folk medicine — Senegalese use the wood decoction for anemia and cachexia. In Sierra
|
||
Leone, young shoots are boiled as a febrifuge. Liberians use the bark decoction for placental
|
||
retention. In French Guinea, the bark is boiled to make a lotion for itch. Nigerians use the
|
||
seed for people inflicted with wounds by poisoned arrows. In Ghana, the fruit is used for
|
||
rubbing chronic backache or tuberculosis of the spine. Fruits are used for chest ailments in
|
||
West Africa.
|
||
Chemistry — Per 100 g, the raw fruit is reported to contain 116 calories, 66.9% moisture,
|
||
1.9 g protein, 0.4 g fat, 29.6 g carbohydrates, 2.3 g fiber, 1.2 g ash, 27 mg calcium, 48
|
||
mg phosphorus, 0.14 mg thiamine, 0.05 mg riboflavin, 0.6 mg niacin, and 1,290 mg ascorbic
|
||
acid. Dried fruit contains, per 100 g, 299 calories, 14.0% moisture, 3.4 g protein, 0.5 g
|
||
fat, 78.8 g carbohydrate, 7.1 g fiber, 3.3 g ash, 110 mg calcium, 0.01 mg thiamine, 0.03
|
||
mg riboflavin, 3.8 mg niacin, and 3 mg ascorbic acid.®^ Detaric acid has been isolated from
|
||
146 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
the fruits.According to Hager’s Handbook,'*^ the fruits are among the highest in the
|
||
world for vitamin C. The figures above suggest that might be true, but the vitamin C is lost
|
||
in drying. Other sources hint that the seeds or fruits are poisonous.
|
||
Description — Tree to nearly 40 m tall, smaller in savanna, with large crown, girth 12
|
||
m, bole 12 m; slash pale-salmon, bark bluish, exuding a slightly fragrant gum or gum-resin,
|
||
twigs rusty. Leaves pinnate, more or less gland-punctuate; leaflets 6 to 12, leathery and
|
||
rather glaucous or minutely pubescent below, with numerous parallel lateral nerves. Flowers
|
||
in fragrant creamy axillary panicles, shorter than leaves, flowers small, profuse, sepals 4,
|
||
white, petals absent, stamens 10, buds glabrous or nearly so, ca. 4 mm long, sepals pubescent
|
||
within. Fruits round, succulent, like flattened mango, >6 cm in diameter, skin smooth,
|
||
crustaceous, with intermediate fibrous layer. Flowers May to August; fruits December to
|
||
January; Ghana.
|
||
Germplasm — Reported from the African Center of Diversity, tallow tree, or cvs thereof,
|
||
is reported to tolerate drought and savanna. The savanna form (senegalense) is smaller than
|
||
the closed forest form (heudelotianum). Seeds of the latter are more likely to be poisonous.
|
||
Distribution — Throughout west Tropical Africa.
|
||
Ecology — A tree of the Closed Forest and Fringing Forests of moister savannas.^'
|
||
Cultivation — Apparently cultivated only to a limited extent in Senegal.
|
||
Harvesting — No data available.
|
||
Yieds and economics — No data available.
|
||
Energy — The wood bums slowly and is favored as a fuel because of the agreeable
|
||
odor.^
|
||
Biotic factors — The heartwood is probably resistant to borers and termites.^*
|
||
147
|
||
ELAEIS GUINEENSIS Jacq. (ARECACEAE [PALMAE]) African Oil Palm
|
||
Syn.: Elaeis melanococca J. Gaertn.
|
||
Uses — Two kinds of oil are obtained from this palm, palm oil and palm kernel oil. Palm
|
||
oil is extracted from the fleshy mesocarp of the fruit, which contains 45 to 55% oil which
|
||
varies from light-yellow to orange-red in color, and melts from 25° to 50°C. For edible fat
|
||
manufacture, the oil is bleached. Palm oil contains saturated palmitic acid, oleic acid, and
|
||
linoleic acid, giving it a higher unsaturated acid content than palm kernel or coconut oils.
|
||
Palm oil is used for manufacture of soaps and candles, and more recently, in manufacture
|
||
of margarine and cooking fats. Palm oil is used extensively in the tin plate industry, protecting
|
||
cleaned iron surfaces before the tin is applied. Oil is also used as lubricant in the textile
|
||
and rubber industries. Palm kernel oil is extracted from the kernel of endosperm, and contains
|
||
about 50% oil. Similar to coconut oil, with a high content of saturated acids, mainly lauric,
|
||
it is solid at normal temperatures in temperate area, and is nearly colorless, varying from
|
||
white to slightly yellow. This nondrying oil is used in edible fats, in making ice cream and
|
||
mayonnaise, in baked goods and confectioneries, and in the manufacture of soaps and
|
||
detergents. Press-cake, after extraction of oil from the kernels, is used as livestock feed,
|
||
and contains 5 to 8% oil. Palm wine is made from the sap obtained by tapping the male
|
||
inflorescence. The sap contains about 4.3 g/100 m€ sucrose and 3.4 g/100 m€ glucose. The
|
||
sap ferments quickly and is an important source of Vitamin B complex in the diet of people
|
||
of West Africa. A mean annual yield for 150 palms is 4,000 €/ha, double in value to the
|
||
oil and kernels from the same number of palms. The central shoot (or cabbage) is edible.
|
||
148 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
Leaves used for thatching; petioles and rachices for fencing and for protecting the tops of
|
||
mud walls. Refuse after stripping the bunches is used for mulching and manuring; ash
|
||
sometimes used in soap-making.
|
||
Folk medicine — According to Hartwell,the oil is used as a liniment for indolent
|
||
tumors. Reported to be anodyne, antidotal, aphrodisiac, diuretic, and vulnerary, oil palm
|
||
is a folk remedy for cancer, headaches, and rheumatism.
|
||
Chemistry — As the oil is rich in carotene, it can be used in place of cod liver oil for
|
||
correcting Vitamin A deficiency. Per 100 g, the fruit is reported to contain 540 calories,
|
||
26.2 g H2O, 1.9 g protein, 58.4 g fat, 12.5 g total carbohydrate, 3.2 g fiber, 1.0 g ash, 82
|
||
mg Ca, 47 mg P, 4.5 mg Fe, 42,420 meg beta-carotene equivalent, 0.20 mg thiamine, 0.10
|
||
mg riboflavin, 1.4 mg niacin, and 12 mg ascorbic acid. The oil contains, per 100 g, 878
|
||
calories, 0.5% H2O, 0.0% protein, 99.1% fat, 0.4 g total carbohydrate, 7 mg Ca, 8 mg P,
|
||
5.5 mg Fe, 27,280 meg beta-carotene equivalent, 0.03 mg riboflavin, and a trace of thia
|
||
mine.The
|
||
fatty composition of the oil is 0.5 to 5.9% myristic, 32.3 to 47.0 palmitic, 1.0
|
||
to 8.5 stearic, 39.8 to 52.4 oleic, and 2.0 to 11.3 linoleic. The component glycerides are
|
||
oleodipalmitins (45%), palmitodioleins (30%), oleopalmitostearins (10%), linoleodioleins
|
||
(6 to 8%), and fully saturated glycerides, tripalmitin and diapalmitostearin (6 to 8%).
|
||
Micou^“ notes that vitamin E is a by-product of the process which converts palm oil into
|
||
a diesel-oil substitute.
|
||
Description — Tall palm, 8.3 to 20 m tall, erect, heavy, trunks ringed; monoecious,
|
||
male and female flowers in separate clusters, but on same tree; trunk to 20 m tall, usually
|
||
less, 30 cm in diameter. Leaf bases adhere; petioles 1.3 to 2.3 m long, 12.5 to 20 cm wide,
|
||
saw-toothed, broadened at base, fibrous, green; blade pinnate, 3.3 to 5 m long, with 100
|
||
to 150 pairs of leaflets; leaflets 60 to 120 cm long, 3.5 to cm broad; central nerve very
|
||
strong, especially at base, green on both surfaces. Flower stalks from lower leaf axils, 10
|
||
to 30 cm long and broad; male flowers on short furry branches 10 to 15 cm long, set close
|
||
to trunk on short pedicels; female flowers and consequently fruits in large clusters of 200
|
||
to 300, close to trunk on short heavy pedicles. Fruits plum-like ovoid-oblong to 3.5 cm
|
||
long and about 2 cm wide, black when ripe, red at base, with thick ivory-white flesh and
|
||
small cavity in center; nuts encased in a fibrous covering which contains the oil. About 5
|
||
female inflorescences are produced per year; each inflorescence weighing about 8 kg, the
|
||
fruits weighing about 3.5 g each.
|
||
Germplasm — Reported from the African Center of Diversity, the African oil palm or
|
||
CVS thereof is reported to tolerate high pH, laterite, low pH, savanna, virus, and water
|
||
logging.^^ Ehsanullah^^ reported on oil palm cultivars. African Oil Palm is monoecious and
|
||
cross-pollinated, and individual palms are very heterozygous. Three varieties are distin
|
||
guished: those with orange nuts which have the finest oil but small kernels; red or black
|
||
nut varieties which have less oil, but larger kernels. Sometimes oil palms are classified
|
||
according to the fruit structure: Dura, with shell or endocarp 2 to 8 mm thick, about 25 to
|
||
55% of weight of fruit; medium mesocarp of 35 to 55% by weight, but up to 65% in the
|
||
Deli Palms; kernels large, 7 to 20% of weight of fruit; the most important type in West
|
||
Africa; the Macrocarya form with shells 6 to 8 mm thick forms a large proportion of the
|
||
crop in western Nigeria and Sierra Leone. Tenera, with thin shells, 0.5 to 3 mm thick, 1
|
||
to 32% of weight of fruit; medium to high mesocarp 60 to 95% of weight of fruit; kernels
|
||
3 to 15% of fruit; larger number of bunches than Dura, but lower mean bunch weight and
|
||
lower fruit-to-bunch ratio. Pisifera, shell-less, with small kernels in fertile fruits, fruits often
|
||
rotting prematurely; fruit-to-bunch ratio low. Infertile palms show strong vegetative growth,
|
||
but of little commercial value; however it has now become of greatest importance in breeding
|
||
commercial palms. Deli Palm (Dura type), originated in Sumatra and Malaya, gives high
|
||
yields in the Far East, but not so good in West Africa. Dumpy Oil Palm, discovered in
|
||
Malaya among Deli Palms, is low-growing and thick-stemmed. Breeding and selection of
|
||
149
|
||
oil palms have been aimed at production of maximum quantity of palm oil and kernels per
|
||
hectare, and resistance to disease. Recently, much attention has been directed at cross
|
||
breeding with E. oleifera for short-trunk hybrids, thus making harvesting easier. Zeven^"^^
|
||
elucidates the center of diversity, and discusses the interactions of some important oil palm
|
||
genes.
|
||
Distribution — The center of origin of the oil palm is in the tropical rain forest region
|
||
of West Africa in a region about 200 to 300 km wide along the coastal belt from Liberia
|
||
to Angola. The palm has spread from 16°N latitude in Senegal to 15°S in Angola and
|
||
eastwards to the Indian Ocean, Zanzibar, and Malagasy. Now introduced and cultivated
|
||
throughout the tropics between 16°N and S latitudes. Sometimes grown as an ornamental,
|
||
as in southern Florida.
|
||
Ecology — Occurs wild in riverine forests or in fresh-water swamps. It cannot thrive in
|
||
primeval forests and does not regenerate in high secondary forests. Requires adequate light
|
||
and soil moisture, can tolerate temporary flooding or a fluctuating water table, as might be
|
||
found along rivers. It is slightly hardier than coconut. Ranging ecologically from savanna
|
||
to rain forest, it is native to areas with 1,780 to 2,280 mm rainfall per year. Best developed
|
||
on lowlands, with 2 to 4 month dry period. Mean maximum temperatures of 30 to 32°C
|
||
and mean minimum of 21 to 24°C provides suitable range. Seedling growth arrested below
|
||
15°C. Grows and thrives on a wide range of tropical soils, provided they have adequate
|
||
water. Waterlogged, highly lateritic, extremely sandy, stony or peaty soils should be avoided.
|
||
Coastal marine alluvial clays, soils of volcanic origin, acid sands, and other coastal alluviums
|
||
are used. Soils with pH of 4 to 6 are most often used. Ranging from Subtropical Dry (without
|
||
frost) through Tropical Dry to West Forest Life Zones, oil palm is reported to tolerate annual
|
||
precipitation of 6.4 to 42.6 dm (mean of 27 cases = 22.7), annual temperature of 18.7 to
|
||
27.4°C (mean of 27 cases = 24.8), and pH of 4.3 to 8.0 (mean of 22 cases = 5.7).®^
|
||
Cultivation — In wild areas of West Africa the forest is often cleared to let 75 to 150
|
||
palms stand per hectare; this yields about 2.5 MT of bunches per hectare per year. Normally,
|
||
oil palms are propagated by seed. Seed germination and seedling establishment are difficult.
|
||
A temperature of 35°C stimulates germination in thin shelled cvs. Thick-walled cvs require
|
||
higher temperatures. Seedlings are outplanted at about 18 months. In some places, seeds
|
||
are harvested from the wild, but plantation culture is proving much more rewarding. In a
|
||
plantation, trees are spaced 9 x 9 m; a 410-ha plantation would have about 50,000 trees,
|
||
each averaging 5 bunches of fruit, each averaging 1 kg oil to yield a total of 250,000 kg
|
||
011 for the 410 ha. Vegetative propagation is not feasible, as the tree has only one growing
|
||
point. Because oil palm is monoecious, cross-pollination is general and the value of parent
|
||
plants is determined by the performance of the progeny produced in such crosses. Bunch-
|
||
yield and oil and kernel content of the bunches are used as criteria for selecting individual
|
||
palms for breeding. Controlled pollination must be maintained when breeding from selected
|
||
plants. Seed to be used for propagation should be harvested ripe. Best germination results
|
||
by placing seeds about 0.6 cm deep in sand flats and covering them with sawdust. Flats are
|
||
kept fully exposed to sun and kept moist. In warm climates, 50% of seed will germinate in
|
||
8 weeks; in other areas it may take from 64 to 146 days. Sometimes the hard shell is ground
|
||
down, or seeds are soaked in hot water for 2 weeks, or both, before planting. Plants grow
|
||
slowly at first, being 6 to 8 years old before the pinnate leaves become normal size. When
|
||
planting seedlings out in fields or forest, holes are dug, and area about 1 m around them
|
||
cleared. Young plants should be transplanted at the beginning of rainy season. In areas
|
||
where there is no distinct dry season, as in Malaya, planting out may be done the year
|
||
round, but is usually done during months with the highest rainfall. Seedlings or young plants,
|
||
12 to 18 months old, should be moved with a substantial ball of earth. Ammonium sulfate
|
||
and sulfate or muriate of potash at a rate of 227 g per palm should be applied in a ring
|
||
about the plant at time of planting. Where magnesium may be deficient in the soil, 227 g
|
||
150 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
Epsom salts or kieserite should be applied also. In many areas oil palms are intercropped
|
||
with food plants, as maize, yams, bananas, cassava, or cocoyams. In Africa, intercropping
|
||
for up to 3 years has helped to produce early palm yields. Cover-crops are often planted,
|
||
as mixtures of C alopogonium m ucunoides, C entrosem a pu bescen s, and P ueraria ph aseo-
|
||
loides, planted in proportion of 2:2:1 with seed rate of 5.5 kg/ha. Natural covers and planted
|
||
cover crops can be controlled by slashing. Nitrogen dressings are important in early years.
|
||
Chlorosis often occurs in nursery beds in the first few years after planting out. Adequate
|
||
manuring should be applied in these early years. When nitrogen fertilizers, as sulfate of
|
||
ammonium, are used, 0.22 kg per palm in the planting year and 0.45 kg per palm per year
|
||
until age 4, should be sufficient. Potassium, magnesium, and trace elements requirements
|
||
should be determined by soil test and the proper fertilizer applied, according to the region,
|
||
soil type, and degree of deficiency.
|
||
Harvesting — First fruit bunches ripen in 3 to 4 years after planting in the field, but
|
||
these may be small and of poor quality. Often these are eliminated by removal of the early
|
||
female inflorescences. Bunches ripen 5 to 6 months after pollination. Bunches should be
|
||
harvested at the correct degree of ripeness, as under-ripe fruits have low oil concentration
|
||
and over-ripe fruits have high fatty acid content. Harvesting is usually done once a week.
|
||
In Africa, bunches of semi-wild trees are harvested with a cutlass, and tall palms are climbed
|
||
by means of ladders and ropes. For the first few years of harvesting, bunches are cut with
|
||
a steel chisel with a wooden handle about 90 cm long, allowing the peduncles to be cut
|
||
without injuring the subtending leaf. Usually thereafter, an axe is used, or a curved knife
|
||
attached to a bamboo pole. A man can harvest 100 to 150 bunches per day. Bunches are
|
||
carried to transport centers and from there to the mill for oil extraction.
|
||
Yields and economics — According to the Wealth of India, the oil yield of oil palm is
|
||
higher than that of any other oilseed crop, producing 2.5 MT oil per ha per year, with 5
|
||
MT recorded. Yields of semi-wild palms vary widely, usually ranging from 1.2 to 5 MT
|
||
of bunches per hectare per year. One MT of bunches yields about 80 kg oil by local soft
|
||
oil extraction, or 180 kg by hydraulic handpress. Estate yields in Africa vary from 7.5 to
|
||
15 MT bunches per hectare per year; in Sumatra and Malaya, 15 to 25 MT, with some
|
||
fields producing 30 to 38 MT. Estate palm oil extraction yield rates vary accordingly: D ura,
|
||
15 to 16% oil per bunch; D eli D u ra, 16 to 18% Tenera, 20 to 22%. Kernel extraction yields
|
||
vary from 3.5 to 5% or more. The U.S. imported nearly 90 million kg in 1966, more than
|
||
half of it as kernel oil. Recently, palm oil commanded $.31/kg, indicating potential yields
|
||
of about $1400/ha. In 1968 world producing countries exported about 544,000 long tons of
|
||
oil and 420,000 long tons of kernels. The main producing countries, in order of production,
|
||
are Nigeria, Congo, Sierra Leone, Ghana, Indonesia, and Malaysia. The U.K. is the largest
|
||
importer of oil palm products, importing about 180,000 MT of palm oil and 243,000 MT
|
||
of palm kernels annually. Japan, and Eastern European and Middle East countries also import
|
||
considerable quantities of palm oil and kernels. Some palm kernel oil extraction is now
|
||
being done in the palm oil producing countries. Previously, most of the kernels had been
|
||
exported, and the oil extracted in the importing countries.
|
||
Energy — Bunch yields may attain 22,000 kg/ha; of which only about 10% is oil,
|
||
indicating oil yields of only 2,200 kg/ha. Higher yields are attainable. Corley^ suggests
|
||
plantation yields of 2 to 6 MT/ha mesocarp oil, experimentally up to 8.5 MT/ha. Hodge,
|
||
citing oil yields of 2,790 kg/ha, suggests that this is the most efficient oil-making plant
|
||
species. The seasonal maximum total biomass reported for oil palm is 220 MT wet weight.
|
||
When replanting occurs, over 40 MT/ha DM (dry matter) of palm trunks are available
|
||
(conceivably for energy production) after the 70% moisture from the wet material has been
|
||
expelled.^ Although annual productivity may approach 37 MT DM/ha, mean productivity
|
||
during the dry season is 10 g/mVday Averaged over the year, oil palm in Malaysia showed
|
||
a growth rate of 8 g/m^/day for an annual phytomass production of 29.4 MT/ha.Fresh
|
||
151
|
||
fruit bunch yields have been increased elsewhere by 2 MT/ha intercropping with appropriate
|
||
legumes. Estate yields in Africa are 7 to 15 MT bunches per year, with oil yields of 800
|
||
to 1800 kg/ha, and residues of yields of ca. 6 to 13 MT. It is probable that older leaves,
|
||
leaf stalks, etc., could be harvested with biomass yield of 1 to 5 MT/ha. Based on energetic
|
||
equivalents of total biomass produced, up to 60 barrels of oil per hectare could be obtained
|
||
from this species. An energy evaluation of all the wastes from the palm oil fruit was made,
|
||
and it revealed that this can satisfy ca. 17% of Malaysia’s energy requirements. Palm oil
|
||
could satisfy 20% more.^^^ An alcoholic wine can be made from the sap of the male spikes,
|
||
150 trees yielding about 4,000 ( of palm wine per hectare, per year. Worthy of energetic
|
||
interest is the suggestion of Gaydou et al.‘®^ that the oil palm can yield twice as much
|
||
energetically as sugarcane, at least based on the Malagasy calculations.
|
||
Biotic factors — Many fungi attack oil palms, but the most serious ones are the following:
|
||
B last {P ythium splendens, followed by R hizoctonia lam ellifera), Freckle (C ercospora elaei-
|
||
dis), Anthracnose (B otryodiplodia palm arum , M elanconium elaeidis, G lom erella cingulata).
|
||
Seedling blight {C urvularia eragrostidis). Yellow patch and Vascular wilt (Fusarium ox-
|
||
ysporum ), Basal rot of trunk {C eratocystis pa ra d o x a , imp. stage of T hielaviopsis p ara d o x d ),
|
||
other trunk rots (G anoderm a spp., A rm illaria m ellea)\ Crown disease, rotting of fruit (M ar-
|
||
asm ius palm ivoru s). Spear rot or bud rot is caused by the bacterium E rw inia sp., which has
|
||
devastated entire areas in S. Congo. The A griculture H andbook 165 reports the leaf spot
|
||
(A chorella attaleae) and the Black Mildew (M eliola m elan ococcae, M . ela eis)^ The following
|
||
nematodes have been isolated from oil palms: A phelenchus avenae, H eterodera m arioni,
|
||
H elicotylenchus pseu dorobu stu s, H . m icrocephalus cocophilus (serious in Venezuela), Scu-
|
||
tellonem a clathrocau datus. The major pests of oil palm in various parts of the world are
|
||
the following: Palm weevils {Rhynchophorus ph oen icis, R. palm arum , R. ferru gin eu s, R.
|
||
schach). Rhinoceros beetles {O rcytes rhinoceros, O. boas, O. m onoceros, O . ow arien sis).
|
||
Weevils (Strategus aloeus, T em noschoita qu adripustulata), Leaf-miners {C oelaenom enodera
|
||
elaeidis, H ispolepsis elaeidis, Alurunus hum eralis), Slug caterpillar (P arasa viridissim a).
|
||
Nettle caterpillar {Setoria nitens), Bagworms (C rem astoph ysch epén du la, M ahesena corbetti.
|
||
M elisa plan a). Rodents may cause damage to seedlings and fruiting palms; some birds also
|
||
cause damage in jungle areas.
|
||
152 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
ELAEIS OLEIEERA (HBK) Cortes (ARECACEAE) — American Oil Palm, Corozo
|
||
Syn. Corozo oleifera (HBK) Bailey; Elaeis melanococca Gaertn., emend. Bailey;
|
||
Alfonsia oleifera HBK
|
||
Uses — Plants are native and cultivated to a limited extent in South America; the oil is
|
||
used for soap-making, food, and lamp fuel. Its main value lies in its slow-growing, pro
|
||
cumbent trunk and high percent of parthenocarpic fruits, and for its hybridizing potential
|
||
with E laeis g u i n e e n s i s American oil palm is better for margarine-making than the African
|
||
oil palm, because the former has a low level of free fatty acids and a high melting point.
|
||
Folk medicine — Reported to be tonic, corozo is a folk remedy for dandruff and other
|
||
scalp ailments, inflammation, and stomach problems.
|
||
Chemistry — The pericarp yields 29 to 50%, the kernel 29 to 45% oil. The pericarp oil
|
||
contains 48.3% saturated fatty acids (1.0% C14, 32.6% palmitic, 4.7% Cjg), 47.5% oleic,
|
||
and 12.0% linoleic, with traces of arachidic acid (0.5%), 0.9% hexadecenoic acid, and 0.8%
|
||
linolenic acid.‘^^
|
||
Description — Small palm; trunk procumbent, although an erect habit may be maintained
|
||
for about 15 years; erect portion 1.6 to 3 m tall, trunks lying on soil up to 8.3 m long; roots
|
||
formed along entire length of procumbent portion of trunk. Leaves 30 to 37 per plant; leaflets
|
||
about 6.3 cm broad, all lying in one plane, no basal swellings; spines on petioles short and
|
||
thick. Male inflorescence with 100 to 200 spikelets 5 to 15 cm long, pressed together until
|
||
they burst through the spathe just before anthesis, rudimentary gynoecium with 3 marked
|
||
stigmatic ridges; female inflorescence with spathe persisting after being ruptured by the
|
||
developing bunch; spikelets ending in a short prong. Flowers numerous, sunk in the body
|
||
of the spikelet; bunch of fruits surrounded by the fibers of the spathe, with no long spines;
|
||
bunches round and wide at their center, pointed at top, giving a distinctly conical shape,
|
||
rarely weighing more than 22.5 kg, usually much smaller, containing a large number of
|
||
small fruits. Fruits ripen from pale yellow to bright red (a high proportion, up to 90%,
|
||
parthenocarpic or abortive); perianth persistent as fruit ripens and becomes detached from
|
||
the bunch; fruits 2.5 to 3.0 cm long, weighing as little as 2 to 3.5 g each with average
|
||
weights from 8.5 to 12.6 g; nuts with 2 kernels fairly frequent, with 3 occasional.
|
||
Germplasm — Reported from the South American Center of Diversity, corozo, or cvs
|
||
thereof, is reported to tolerate acid soils, drought, savanna, some salt-water, and waterlog
|
||
ging.^^ “ Tissue culture has increased interest in the hybrids of E. guineensis x E. oleifera:
|
||
the latter produces a high quality unsaturated oil, although the yield of oil is low. The oil
|
||
yield of the F, hybrid is intermediate between both parental species; in back crosses to E.
|
||
guineensis, however, occasional palms are found that combine good yield (from E. gu i
|
||
neensis) with improved oil quality and reduced height increment (from E. oleifera): such
|
||
palms can now be multiplied clonally.’’*^^ There are some variations in habit of growth and
|
||
leaf-formation. This species easily hybridizes with the p isifera form of E. gunieensis, the
|
||
African Oil Palm, and the fruits are relatively thin-shelled, but have no fiber
|
||
(2n = 32.)
|
||
Distribution — Native to Central and South America (Brazil, Colombia, Venezuela,
|
||
Surinam, Panama, and Costa Rica.).^^*
|
||
Ecology — Ranging from Subtropical Dry to Moist through Tropical Thom to Moist
|
||
Forest Life Zones, corozo is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 6.4 to 15.2 (to 40)
|
||
dm (mean of 7 cases = 11.9), annual temperature of 21.0 to 27.8°C (mean of 7 cases =
|
||
24.4), and pH of (4 to) 5.0 to 8.0 (mean of 5 cases = 6.5).®^ Actually, I have observed
|
||
oil palm in much wetter situations than these data indicate. At the Panama-Costa Rica border,
|
||
where the rainfall is closer to 40 dm, there are abundant strands of corozo, some even said
|
||
to tolerate brackish water. In Latin America plants grow procumbent in swampy areas, and
|
||
more upright in drier areas. Best development is in lowland ravines with rainfall between
|
||
153
|
||
1,700 and 2,200 mm annually. Mean maximum temperatures of 30 to 32°C and mean
|
||
minimum temperatures of 21 to 24°C are suitable. Grows and thrives on a wide range of
|
||
tropical soils, provided they have adequate water; soils with pH 4 to 6 are most often used
|
||
for cultivation.
|
||
Cultivation — When this palm is cultivated, seeds are planted in seedbeds and the
|
||
seedlings transplanted into the field when about 12 to 18 months old. Fruits are selected
|
||
from special mother plants, often after pollination with pollen of a selected male palm. Seeds
|
||
may be germinated in a germinator and the seedlings grown in a pre-nursery, and later in
|
||
a nursery. Transplants are planted where the bush has been checked. In the nurseries, plants
|
||
receive water and fertilizer and are shaded to protect them from sunburn. After being planted
|
||
out, they must receive more fertilizer. Ammonium sulfate and sulfate or muriate of potash
|
||
at a rate of 227 g per palm should be applied in a ring about the plant at time of planting.
|
||
Where magnesium may be deficient in the soil, 227 g Epsom salts or kieserite should be
|
||
applied also. Plants grow slowly at first, being about 7 years old before the typical pinnate
|
||
leaves form normal size. In many areas, oil palms are intercropped with vegetable and other
|
||
food crops, as maize, yams, bananas, cassava, or cocoyams. Intercropping for 3 years or
|
||
so has helped to produce early palm yields. Cover crops are often planted, as mixtures of
|
||
C alopogonium m ucunoides, C entrosem a pu bescen s, and P ueraria ph aseoloides, planted in
|
||
proportion of 2:2:1 with seed rates of 5.5 kg/ha. Natural covers and planted cover crops can
|
||
be controlled by slashing. Adequate manure should be applied during the early years to
|
||
provide nitrogen. When nitrogen fertilizers (e.g., sulfate or ammonium) are used, 0.22 kg
|
||
per palm in the planting years and 0.45 kg per palm per year until age 4, should be sufficient.
|
||
Potassium, magnesium, and trace elements requirements should be determined by soil test
|
||
and the proper fertilizer applied, according to the region, soil type, and degree of defi
|
||
ciency.
|
||
Harvesting — Fruits mature from January to June, usually borne only about 1.5 m above
|
||
the ground, in an averge 5 clusters. Fruits begin to be formed about 4 years after planting
|
||
in the field. Often the first female inflorescences are cut off to allow better plant development.
|
||
Bunches ripen about 6 months after pollination. Ripe fruits are harvested about once a week.
|
||
Bunches are cut with machete or sharp knife, and carried to transport centers, from which
|
||
they go to the mill for oil extraction.
|
||
Yields and economics — Bunches rarely weigh more than 22.5 kg, and generally average
|
||
8.5 to 12.67 g each; in Colombia, fruits weigh as little as 2.0 to 3.5 g. Fruit-to-bunch ratio
|
||
varies from 32 to 44%.^^^ Oil yield of E. oleifera is much lower than that of E. guineensis\^^^
|
||
a tree can yield annually ca.25 kg fruit (equalling ca. 12,850 individual fruits).Hadcock^^®
|
||
describes a simple oil palm mill (capacity 250 kg bunches per hr) that would work on either
|
||
species of oil palm. Bunches are sterilized for 1 hr before stripping. After stripping, the
|
||
fruit is reheated for 1 hr before it is digested in a rapid digester operated by a 5 h.p engine.
|
||
Oil is extracted with a hydraulic press. The oil is separated from the crude material by means
|
||
of a continuous settling clarifier fitted with a heat exchanger to dry the oil. The efficiency
|
||
of oil recovery is only 75 to 86%. The mill, including the building cost, is U.S. $34,000.^^®
|
||
Energy — See African oil palm, which has a somewhat higher energy potential.
|
||
Biotic factors — Both bee- and wind-pollinated; but up to 90% of fruits may be par-
|
||
thenocarpic. Bees are common around male inflorescence and may act as pollinating agents.
|
||
Hermaphroditic inflorescence plants are found in America and in planted trees in the Congo.
|
||
Most of the pests and diseases of the African oil palm are associated with this palm also,
|
||
especially where it has been planted with E. guineensis
|
||
154
|
||
Handbook of Nuts
|
||
ELEOCHARIS DULCIS (Burnì.f.) Trin. ex Henschel (CYPERACEAE) — Watemut, Chinese
|
||
Water chestnut, MA TAI, MA HAI
|
||
Syn.: Andropogon dulce Burnì, f., Scirpusplantagineus Tetz., Scirpusplantaginoides
|
||
Rottb., Scirpus tuberosus Roxb., Eleocharis plantaginea (Retz.) Roem. and
|
||
Schut., Eleocharis tuberosa Schultes
|
||
Uses — Edible tubers or corms are used as a vegetable in many East Indian and Chinese
|
||
dishes. Sliced, they are esteemed in Chinese soups for their crisp texture and delicious flavor.
|
||
Sliced water chestnuts are one of the ingredients of chop suey in the U.S. They are rec
|
||
ommended, as well, in American salads and soups. Shredded water chestnuts often appear
|
||
in meat and fish dishes. Raw corms are eaten out of hand in lieu of fresh fruit in China.
|
||
East Indians cook the tubers, remove the rind, crush the meat with a hammer, sun dry, and
|
||
fry in coconut oil as a delicacy.
|
||
Folk medicine — In China,^ the plant is used for abdominal pain, amenorrhea, anemia,
|
||
bruises, clots, gas, hernia, inflammation, liver, malnutrition, pinkeye, and swellings.
|
||
Porterfield^^® notes that Chinese give quantities to children who have ingested coins, in the
|
||
belief that the water chestnuts will decompose the metal.
|
||
Chemistry — Per 100 g, the root (ZMB) contains 360 to 364 calories, 7.4 to 8.5 g
|
||
protein, 0.7 to 1.6 g fat, 84.8 to 87.6 g total carbohydrate, 3.2 to 3.9 g fiber, 5.1 to 6.0 g
|
||
ash, 18.4 to 26.5 mg Ca, 299 to 407 mg P, 2.8 to 3.7 mg Fe, 53 to 92 mg Na, 2,304 to
|
||
2,545 mg K, 0 |xg beta-carotene equivalent, 0.16 to 0.65 mg thiamine, 0.11 to 0.92 mg
|
||
riboflavin, 4.6 to 5.3 mg niacin, and 18 to 32 mg ascorbic acid.®^ Another analysis suggested
|
||
77% carbohydrate (half sugar, half starch) and 8% albuminoids.^ According to Porterfield,^^®
|
||
the water chestnut contains ca.77% carbohydrates. The cane-sugar content, in water-free
|
||
samples, averages about 27.5%, while protein is rather low. The starch content of the fresh
|
||
corm is ca. 7 to 8%.
|
||
155
|
||
Description — Perennial aquatic or paludal rush-like herb, with elongate rhizomes,
|
||
terminated by a tuber; culms terete, erect, 40 to 80 cm tall, 2.5 mm thick, glaucous-green,
|
||
smooth, septate-nodose within, arising from short, dark-brown, basal tuber or corm 5 cm
|
||
or less in diameter. Sheaths 5 to 20 cm long, frequently partially reddish. Spikelets cylin
|
||
drical, 4 cm long, 3 to 4 mm thick, scales broadly elliptic, 5 to 6 mm long. Achenes obovate-
|
||
orbicular, 2 mm long, lustrous, tawny, smooth, bristles with short spines at tip, these shorter
|
||
toward apex, style-base short-deltoid with strongly depressed inconspicuous basal disc.
|
||
Flowers summer; fruits July to October.
|
||
Germplasm — Reported from the China-Japan Center of Diversity, water chestnut, or
|
||
CVS thereof, is reported to tolerate waterlogging.*^ Two cvs recognized in China are ‘Ma
|
||
Tai’, or common water-chestnut, usually black and about 2.5 cm in diameter: ‘Mandarin’
|
||
water chestnut, dark reddish-brown, with slight cover of light-brown skin, and about 3.2
|
||
cm in diameter. Shell is a tough hard skin, and the kernel resembles a potato in consistency,
|
||
color, and composition.^^*
|
||
Distribution — Native to the East Indies, China and Japan, Fiji, Philippines, India, and
|
||
New Caledonia, Chinese water chestnuts are cultivated throughout the Far East, especially
|
||
in Taiwan, Malaysia, and Ryukyu Islands.^^* Zeven and Zhukovsky^^® mention it for West
|
||
Africa, as well. Rosengarten^*^ suggests its cultivation in the Atlantic and Gulf Coastal States
|
||
as far north as Virginia. They are suggested also for Puerto Rico and Hawaii.
|
||
Ecology — Ranging from Subtropical Dry to Moist through Tropical Dry to Moist Forest
|
||
Life Zones, water chestnut is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 8.7 to 24.1 dm
|
||
(mean of 3 cases = 16.7), annual temperature of 18.7 to 26.6°C (mean of 3 cases =
|
||
22.9°C), and pH of 5.3 to 5.5 (mean of 2 cases = 5.4).*^ Hardy only to Zone 9*^^ or perhaps
|
||
to Zone 7,^"^^ tolerating average annual minimum temperatures of 5 to 10°F (to 15 to 12°C),
|
||
Chinese water chestnuts grow in shallow water, and are adapted for planting along edges
|
||
of ponds, in boggy places, or in marshes, remaining green during the fall and winter. In
|
||
colder areas, plants are grown in pots, tubs, or pools of water.^^*
|
||
Cultivation — Planting is done annually in June or July. Old corms are first planted in
|
||
wet mud and, when sprouted, are planted usually about 15 cm deep in fields of mud covered
|
||
with some, but not too much, water. Also propagated by offsets from the corms, it spreads
|
||
by means of horizontal rhizomes. It grows practically throughout the year, at least until
|
||
ready to replant for the next season. Corms should be planted in rich, fertile soil, one to
|
||
each 15-cm pot, when grown for local or limited culture. Pots should be submerged so that
|
||
the soil surface is covered with 15 cm of water. Potted plants may be put out in pools when
|
||
weather is warm and settled, but should be brought in before frost.^^* DeRigo and Winters^^
|
||
recommend 224 kg N (ammonium sulfate), 112 kg P2O5 (superphosphate), and 168 kg K2O
|
||
(muriate of potash), as the best fertilizer combination for water chestnut growers with soils
|
||
similar to those in the Savannah station of the U.S. Department of Agriculture.
|
||
Harvesting — Corms, mature and ready for use in about 6 months, are harvested as
|
||
needed. For commerical purposes, toward the end of the season all the tubers in a clump
|
||
may be harvested. After the tops are removed, tubers may be plowed up and hand picked.
|
||
At harvest time, the corms, 3 to 5 cm in diameter, may be produced on the rhizomes to a
|
||
depth of 25 cm. Corms are cleaned, dried, and shipped to markets.^^*
|
||
Yields and economics — Plants are very prolific, and a plant may yield 10 to 12 kg of
|
||
chestnuts per season. Yields as high as 40 MT/ha are reported from China, higher than the
|
||
35 MT/ha reported by DeRigo and Winters.The 10 MT/ha reported in The Wealth of
|
||
India'^^ may be more realistic. Rosengarten^*^ more optimistically suggests 25 to 50 tons per
|
||
hectare. They are used extensively as food in the East Indies, China, and Japan. Canned
|
||
Chinese water chestnuts are imported from Hong Kong in large quantities into Europe, Great
|
||
Britain, and the U.S.^^*
|
||
Energy — Accepting tuber yields of 40 MT/ha, the tubers being ca. 75% water, there
|
||
156 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
is a DM yield of 10 MT/ha. This could be used as a food or energy source. Tops, normally
|
||
discarded, would probably represent even less DM, also available for energy production.
|
||
Biotic factors — Attacked by several fungi: Cladosporium herbarum, Claviceps nigricans,
|
||
Curvularia lunata, C. maculans, Cylindrosporium eleocharidis, Dermatosorus eleocharidis,
|
||
Entyloma eleochardis, E. parvum, Epicoccum nigrum, Mucor circinelloides, Pestalotia
|
||
scripina, Physoderma heleocharidis, Puccinia eleocharidis, P. liberta, Uredo incomposita,
|
||
Uromyces eleocharidis, Dicaeoma eleocharidis. The following nematodes have been isolated
|
||
from Chinese water chestnuts; Dolichodorus heterocephalus, Hoplolaimus coronatus, and
|
||
Paratylenchus sarissus
|
||
157
|
||
FAGUS GRANDIFOLIA Ehrh. (FAGACEAE) — American Beech
|
||
S yn .: Fagus americana S w eet, Fagus ferruginea A lt., Fagus atropurpuea Sudw,
|
||
U ses — Nuts eaten raw, dried, or cooked; they usually have a sweet taste. Sometimes
|
||
roasted and ground for use as a coffee substitute.Beech buds may be eaten in the spring^®^
|
||
and young leaves cooked as greens in the spring. The inner bark is dried and pulverized for
|
||
bread flour in times of need and used as emergency food. Beechnuts are used to make cakes
|
||
and pies.^^® Nuts are a fattening feed for hogs and poultry,and also provide food for
|
||
wildlife. Trees make excellent ornamentals and provide valuable timber. The wood is heavy,
|
||
straight-grained, of close texture, hard, but not durable, and hence it is not used as building
|
||
timber, though extensively used for ordinary lumber ware, furniture, and cooperage stock.
|
||
Also used for boxes, clothes-pins, crates, cross-ties, flooring, food containers, fuel, general
|
||
millwork, handles, laundry appliances, pulpwood, spools, toys, veneer, and woodenware.
|
||
After steaming, the wood is easy to bend and is valuable for the curved parts of chairs.
|
||
Wood tar (source of creosote) is obtained through destructive distillation of the wood.^^"^
|
||
Early settlers used the wood mainly for fuel wood. Makes excellent charcoal that was used
|
||
by blacksmiths and in furnaces for smelting iron.^^^
|
||
F olk m ed icin e — Reported to be antidote and poison, American beech is a folk remedy
|
||
for bums, frostbite, rash, and scald,^^ UphoP^"^ reports it to be antiseptic, antipyretic, a
|
||
stimulating expectorant, used for chronic bronchitis, pulmonary tuberculosis, and vomiting
|
||
158 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
seasickness. Guiaicol (from beech wood creosote) is expectorant and intestinal antiseptic.
|
||
Cherokee Indians chewed the inner bark as a worm treatment. Potawatomi Indians used a
|
||
decoction of leaves on frostbitten extremities and made a leaf decoction compound for
|
||
bums.^*^ Rappahannock Indians applied it to poison ivy rash three times daily in the form
|
||
of a wash made by steeping a handful of beech bark, from the north side of the tree, in a
|
||
pint of water with a little salt.^^®
|
||
Chemistry — Per 100 gm, the seed is reported to contain 608 calories, 20.8 g protein,
|
||
53.5 fat, 21.7 g total carbohydrate, 4.0 g fiber, and 4.0 g ash.^^ Rosengarten^^^ reports
|
||
beech nuts contain 19.4% protein, 20.3% carbohydrates, and 5,667 calories per kg. Another
|
||
source lists beech nuts as containing (per 100 g) 568 calories, 19.4 g protein, 50.0 g fat,
|
||
20.3 g carbohydrate, and 6.6% water.Smith^*® reports 6.6% water, 21.8% protein, 49.9%
|
||
fat, 18.0% carbohydrates, 3.7% ash, and 6,028 calories per kg. The wood is a source of
|
||
methyl alcohol and acetic acid. Guaiacol is derived from beech wood creosote by fractional
|
||
distillation.
|
||
Toxicity — Occasionally nuts cause poisoning in man and domestic animals. There have
|
||
been reports that indicate gastrointestinal distress, probably caused by a saponin glycoside.*®"^
|
||
Description — Deciduous tree, to 30 (to 40) m tall and 1 m in diameter, round-topped;
|
||
bark smooth, gray; winter-buds long, lanceolate, acute; twigs slender, often slightly zigzag.
|
||
Leaves alternate, short-petioled, simple, ovate-oblong, obovate or elliptical, 6.5 to 12.5 cm
|
||
long, sharply serrate to denticulate, thin, papery, broadly acute to subcordate at base, straight-
|
||
veined, densely silky when young, becoming glabrous above and dark bluish-green and
|
||
usually silky-pubescent beneath, turning yellow in fall. Flowers monoecious, appearing with
|
||
leaves; staminate flowers in drooping heads, subtended by deciduous bracts, with small
|
||
calyx, deeply 4 to 8 cleft and 8 to 16 stamens; pistillate flowers in 2 to 4-flowered spikes,
|
||
usually in pairs at end of short peduncle, subtended and largely concealed by numerous
|
||
subulate bracts, calyx adnate to ovary with 6 acuminate lobes. Burs prickly, about 2 to 2.5
|
||
cm in diameter, dehiscing into 4 valves, partially opening upon maturity; nuts triangular,
|
||
up to 2 cm long, 2 or 3 in each bur; seed-coat brown, removed from kernel before eating.
|
||
Root-suckering causes thickets around old trees. Flowers spring; fruits fall.^^^
|
||
Germplasm — Reported from the North American Center of Diversity, American beech,
|
||
or CVS thereof, is reported to tolerate frost, high pH, limestone, low pH, shade, slope, weeds,
|
||
and waterlogging.^^ Three natural varieties can be distinguished: var. grandifolia — prickles
|
||
of bur 4 to 10 mm long, erect, spreading or recurved, with leaves usually sharply serrate,
|
||
grows in rich upland soils, from Nova Scotia and New Brunswick to Minnesota, south to
|
||
Virginia and Kentucky, and in mountains to North Carolina, Illinois, and southeastern
|
||
Missouri; var. caroliniana (Loud.) Fern, and Rehd. — prickles of bur 1 to 3 (to 4) mm
|
||
long, usually abruptly reflexed from near base, leaves more acuminate and often merely
|
||
denticulate, found in moist or wet lowland forests, on or near Coastal Plain, Massachusetts
|
||
to Florida and Texas, and north in the Mississippi Valley to southern Illinois and Ohio; var.
|
||
pubescens Fern, and Rehd. — leaves soft-pubescent below, sometimes only slightly so.
|
||
Natives in Kentucky and other mountainous areas where both major varieties occur separate
|
||
them into Red and White Beech, due to color of wood.^^® ‘Abrams’ and ‘Abundance’ were
|
||
introduced into trade in 1926 by Willard Bixby. Both appeared to produce superior nuts.
|
||
‘Jenner’ is said to bear regular crops of exceptionally large nuts.^^^ (2n = 12.)
|
||
Distribution — Generally distributed throughout eastern U.S. and Canada, from Nova
|
||
Scotia and New Brunswick, south to Florida, west to Minnesota, Wisconsin south to Texas.
|
||
Ecology — Ranging from Cool Temperate Moist to Wet through Subtropical Moist Forest
|
||
Life Zones, American beech is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 6.7 to 12.8 dm
|
||
(mean of 9 cases = 10.5), annual temperature of 7.0 to 17.6°C (mean of 9 cases = 10.8°C),
|
||
and pH of 4.5 to 6.5 (mean of 8 cases = 5.5).^^ Grows well in acid soils on rather dry
|
||
hillsides, but will grow in lowlands of Coastal Plain. Thrives where soil is protected by
|
||
159
|
||
mulch of its own leaves. On many rich upland and mountain slopes, this long-lived tree
|
||
forms nearly pure stands. Southward often found on bottom-lands and along margins of
|
||
swamps.Hardy to Zone 3.^^^
|
||
Cultivation — Propagates readily from seed sown in fall or stratified and kept for sowing
|
||
in spring. Cover with V2 inch of soil; protect from vermin.Fall-sown beds should be
|
||
mulched until midsummer and kept in half-shade until past mid-summer of first year.^^^
|
||
Seedlings should be transplanted frequently, for 2 to 3 years, to prevent formation of a long
|
||
taproot. Horticultural varities are grafted on seedling stock and grown on under glass until
|
||
planted out.^^^ Trees are slow-growing and may live 400 years or more.^^^
|
||
Harvesting — Nuts are gathered after heavy frosts have caused them to drop to the
|
||
ground. Treated like other nuts until used.^^^ Fresh nuts will deteriorate within a few weeks
|
||
if not properly dried. Shells are easily removed with the fingernails.Wood is harvested
|
||
from trees 60 to 90 cm in diameter.
|
||
Yields and economics — Rudolf and Leak^®^ report between 2,860 to 5,060 cleaned
|
||
seeds per kg (1,300 to 2,300/lb). Beech nuts are a very minor product in North America,
|
||
compared to other nuts. Used more by people with limited supplies of nuts. Lumber is the
|
||
more important commercial product.
|
||
Energy — The heavy wood (sp. grav. 0.65 to 0.75) is used for fuel wood and charcoal.
|
||
The seeds, though copious at times, are so small that they could hardly be considered an
|
||
energy source. One could multiply seed yields by 0.5 to get a rough idea of the oil potential.
|
||
Biotic factors — Serious bark disease associated with the presence of beech scale,
|
||
prevalent in Canada and Maine. Dormant oil spray is used to check scale. Nicotine-sulfate
|
||
can be used when young leaves first appear. Mottle-leaf or scorch disease, resulting in
|
||
premature leaf-fail, is prevalent on American beech, the exact cause is not yet known.
|
||
The Agriculture Handbook 165"^ reports the following as affecting this species: Anthostoma
|
||
turgidum, Armillaria mellea, Botryosphaeria hoffmanni, Ceratostomella echinella, C. mi-
|
||
crospora, Cercospora sp., Coccomyces comitialis, C. coronatus, Coniothyrium fagi, Con-
|
||
opholis americana, Cryptodiaporthe galericulata, Cryptosporella compta, Cytospora spp.,
|
||
C. pustulata, Daedalea ambigua, D. confragosa, D. unicolor, Daldinia concentrica, D.
|
||
vernicosa, Diaporthefagi, Diatrype spp., Dichaenafaginea, Discosia artocreas, Endobotrya
|
||
legans, Endoconidiophora virescens, Endothia gyrosa, Epifagus virginiana, Favolus alveo-
|
||
laris, Fomes applanatus, F. connatus, F. everhartii, F. formentarius, F. igniarius, F.
|
||
pinicola, Gloeosporium fagi, Graphium album, Hericium coralloides, H. laciniatum, Hy-
|
||
menochaete spp., Hypoxylon spp., Lasiophaeriapezizula, Libertellafaginea, Microsphaera
|
||
alni. Microstroma sp., Mycosphaerella fagi, M. punctiformis, Nectria cinnabarina, N.
|
||
coccinea, N. galligena, Pholiota spp., Phomopsis sp., Phoradendron flavescens, Phyllac-
|
||
tinia corylea, Phyllosticta faginea, Phytophthora cactorum, Polyporus spp., Poria spp.,
|
||
Scorias spongiosa, Septobasidium spp., Steccherinum ochraceum, S. septentrionale, Ster-
|
||
eum spp., Strumella coryneoidea, Trametes spp., Ustulina deusta, U. linearis, Valsa spp.,
|
||
Xylaria corniformis, and X. digitata. Erineum (leaf deformity caused by mites) is also
|
||
reported. In addition, Browne,lists: Fungi— Asterosporium hoffmannii, Cerrena unicolor,
|
||
Ganoderma appalanatum, Gnomonia veneta, Hericium caput-ursi, Hymenochaete tabacina,
|
||
Hypoxylon blakei, H. cohaerens, Inonotus glomeratus, I. obliquus, Phellinus igniarus,
|
||
Phyllactinea guttata, Polyporus adustus, P. hirsutus, P. versicolor, Poria laevigata, Sterum
|
||
fasciatum, S. purpureum, Torula ligniperda, Valsa leucostomoides. Hemiptera — Corythu-
|
||
cha pallipes. Cryptococcus fagi, Parthenolecanium corni, Phyllaphis fagi, Prociphilus im-
|
||
bricator. Lepidoptera — Alsophila pometaria, Cenopis pettitana, Choristoneura fractivittana,
|
||
Datana integerrima, D. ministra, Disphragia guttivitta, Ennomos magnaria, E. subsignaria,
|
||
Halisidota maculata, Hemerocampa leucostigma, Lymantria dispar, Nadata gibbosa, Op-
|
||
erophtera bruceata, Orgyia antiqua, Pandemis lamprosana, Paraclemensia acerifoliella,
|
||
Symmerista albifrons, S. leucitys, Tetralopha asperatella. Mammalia — Erethizon dorsatum.
|
||
160 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
FA G U S SYLVATICA L. (FAGACEAE) — European Beech
|
||
Uses — The nuts are sweet and edible when roasted. Roasted nuts can be used as a
|
||
substitute for coffee. Press-cake from decorticated nuts is used as a feed for cattle, pigs,
|
||
and poultry.Oil expressed from nuts is used for cooking, illumination, and manufacture of
|
||
soap. Used as a substitute for butter. Leaves used as a substitute for tobacco. Trees furnish
|
||
excellent timber. Wood is heavy, hard, straight-grained, close textured, durable, easy to
|
||
split, strong, resistant to abrasion, and used for flooring, cooperage, furniture, turnery,
|
||
utensils, wagons, agricultural implements, wooden shoes, spoons, plates, pianos, ship build
|
||
ing, railroad ties, brush backs, meat choppers, construction of dams, water-mills, excelsior,
|
||
wood pulp, and is an excellent fuel. Takes a good polish and can be easily bent when
|
||
steamed. In Norway and Sweden, boiled beech wood sawdust is baked and then mixed with
|
||
flour to form the material for bread. Source of creosote, which is used as a preservative
|
||
treatment of timber. Trees make excellent ornamental plants as leaves remain on tree most
|
||
of winter.
|
||
Folk medicine — Reported to be carminative, poison, analgesic, antidote, antipyretic,
|
||
antiseptic, apertif, astringent, laxative, parasiticide, refrigerant, and tonic, European beech
|
||
is a folk remedy for blood disorders and fever.Source of creosote, used as a deodorant
|
||
dusting powder in cases of gangrene and bed sores when mixed with plaster of paris.^°
|
||
Chemistry — Hager’s Handbookreports the leaves to contain pentosane, methylpen-
|
||
tosane, idalin, a wax, cerotonic acid, p-hydoxybenzoic acid, vanillic acid, p-coumaric-,
|
||
ferulic-, caffeic-, chlorogenic-acid, and traces of inositol and sinapic acid; myricetin, leu-
|
||
codelphinidin, quercetin, isoquercitrin, leucocyanidin, and kaempferol; n-nonacosan, beta-
|
||
sitosterol, alanine, aminobutyric acid, arginine, asparagine, glutamine, hydroxy glutamic
|
||
acid, glycine, hydroxyproline, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, proline, threo
|
||
nine, tyrosine, valine, serine; and a little cystine, tyrosine, and histidine. The seeds contain
|
||
25 to 45% oil (3.5% stearic-, ca.5% palmitic-, 40 to 76% oleic-, and ca.10% linoleic-acid);
|
||
also choline, neurine, trimethylamine, sugar, malic-, citric-, oxalic-, lactic-, and tannic-
|
||
acids; gums, betaine, sinapic-, caffeic-, and ferulic-acids; saponins, tannins, and the alkaloid
|
||
fagine. Bark contains 3 to 4% tannin, citric acid, beta-sitosterol, betulin. Arachidylalcohol
|
||
(arachinalcohol, n-eicosylalcohol C20H42O), vanilloside (C14H18O8), docosanol, tetracosanol,
|
||
hexacosanol; lauric-, myristic-, palmitic-, stearic-, oleic-, and linoleic-acid. Wood contains
|
||
0.5% 1-arabinose (C5H10O5), 18% d-xylose (C5H10O5), 1-rhamnose, and d-galactose.^^^
|
||
Toxicity — Raw nuts are poisonous, probably due to the presence of a saponin (CSIR,
|
||
1948-1976).
|
||
Description — Trees deciduous, long-lived, up to 30 m tall, round-topped; trunk smooth,
|
||
gray; buds slender, fusiform, acute, reddish-brown; branches smooth. Leaves alternate, ovate
|
||
or elliptic, acute, cuneate or rounded at base, 5 to 10 cm long, glabrous, at least along
|
||
veins, with 5 to 8 pairs of conspicuous lateral veins, denticulate, shinking dark-green above,
|
||
turning reddish-brown in fall. Male flowers numerous, in long-stalked aments, perianth
|
||
divided almost to base; peduncles 5 to 6 cm long. Nut ovate, 12 to 30 mm in diameter,
|
||
brown; cupule woody, about 2.5 cm wide, deeply divided into 4 valves which are covered
|
||
outside with awl-shaped spines. April to May.^^^
|
||
Germplasm — Reported from the Euro-Siberian Center of Diversity, European beech,
|
||
or CVS thereof, is reported to tolerate frost, high pH, limestone, low pH, shade, slope, and
|
||
smog.^^ There are many variations of leaf color and size, and branchlet habit. Some of the
|
||
horticultural varieties include: var. albovariegata — leaves variegated with white; var.
|
||
asplenifolia Lodd. — leaves very narrow, deeply toothed or lobed; var. atropunicea Sudw.
|
||
(var. atropurpúrea Hort., var. purpurea Ait., var. riversii Hort., var. suprea) — Purple
|
||
Beech, leaves purple; var. borneyensis — intermediate between vars. pén du la and tortusa\
|
||
leaves coarsely toothed; var. laciniata (var. incisa Hort., var. heterophylla Loud.) — Femleaf
|
||
161
|
||
or Cutleaf Beech, leaves deeply toothed or lobed or sometimes entire and linear; var. latifolia
|
||
— leaves to 15 cm long and 10 cm wide; var. luteovariegata — leaves variegated with
|
||
yellow; var. m iltoniensis — drooping form; var. pén du la Lodd. — Weeping Beech, branches
|
||
drooping; var. purpuero-pendula Hort. — branches drooping with purple leaves; var. ro-
|
||
seom arginata — leaves purple edged with pale pink; var. rotundifolia — leaves nearly
|
||
orbicular, 2.5 cm or less long; var. quercifolia Schelle (var. quercoides Hort.) — leaves
|
||
deeply toothed and sinuate; var. qu ercoides Pers. — bark dark, rough, oak-like; var. tortuosa
|
||
Dipp. (var. rem illyensis) — branches twisted and contorted, drooping at tips; var. tricolor
|
||
— leaves nearly white, spotted with green and edged with pink; var. varigata — leaves
|
||
variegated with white or yellow; var. zlatia Spaeth — leaves yellow.(2n = 22,24.^^)
|
||
D istrib u tion — Central and southern Europe, east to the Caucasus, ascending to 1,700
|
||
m in Alps. Introduced to Ireland; widely planted as ornamental. Found as far north as
|
||
southeastern Norway.
|
||
E cology — Ranging from Cool Temperate Steppe to Wet through Warm Temperate Dry
|
||
to Moist Forest Life Zones, European beech is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of
|
||
3.1 to 13.6 dm (mean of 29 cases = 7.8), annual temperature of 6.5 to 18.0°C (mean of
|
||
29 cases == 9.7°C), and pH of 4.5 to 8.2 (mean of 25 cases = 6.3).^^ In woods on well-
|
||
drained soils, often in mountains and on hillsides. Thrives on northern and eastern exposures,
|
||
enduring much shade, shunning poor soils and swamps, protecting and improving the soil.
|
||
Thrives on loamy limestone soil, but will grow on acid soils. Thrives where soils are protected
|
||
by mulch of its own leaves; growing best in dry sandy loams. Trees are relatively insensitive
|
||
to unfavorable conditions.Hardy to Zone 4.^"^^
|
||
C u ltivation — Propagation readily attained by seed in fall or stratified and kept for sowing
|
||
in spring. Protect seeds and seedlings from vermin. Seedlings should be transp-anted every
|
||
second or third year to prevent formation of long taproot. Varieties are grafted on seedling
|
||
stock under glass. All upright forms may be clipped to form excellent hedges.
|
||
H arvestin g — Nuts are harvested in fall, usually after they fall to ground. Nuts are also
|
||
harvested all winter by wildlife. Timber harvested from mature trees.
|
||
Y ields and econ om ics — Since beech-nuts do not enter markets for human consumption,
|
||
no data are available. The nuts are not a commercial item, but are especially valuable as
|
||
food for wildlife. Trees form extensive forests, and the wood is a common hardwood tree
|
||
in Denmark and Germany, where it is raised as pure growth or as mixed woodland. Nurseries
|
||
propagate large numbers for ornamentals.
|
||
E n ergy — CanneP^ presents biomass data showing that trees ca. 100 years old, spaced
|
||
at 1200 trees per ha, averaged 23.7 m tall, a basal area of 48.2 m^/ha, and a stem volume
|
||
of 460 mVha. The stem wood plus the stem bark, on a DM basis, weighed 365 MT/ha, the
|
||
branches 49, the foliage 5, and the roots were estimated at 50 MT/ha for a total standing
|
||
biomass of ca. 468 MT/ha. The current annual increment (CAI) of stem wood and bark was
|
||
3.6 MT/ha/yr, which total was estimated at 9.3 MT/ha/yr. These data were taken in a brown
|
||
forest soil in Bulgaria 42 to 43°N, 23 to 25°E, 1400 to 1600 m elevation. On red alluvial
|
||
soil in Denmark (56°00'N, 12°20'E, elevation 200 m), 200-year-old trees, averaging 26 m
|
||
tall, had CAIs of only 5.9 mVha/yr compared with 12.7 for 54-year-old trees. Beck and
|
||
Mittman^^ showed that annual litter fall was close to 5 MT/ha in a pure beech stand in the
|
||
Black Forest of West Germany (mean annual temperature 8.3°, annual precipitation 10.5
|
||
dm; elevation 325 m). In Sweden, Nihlgard and Lindgren^^^ cite annual above-ground
|
||
productivity of 10.4 to 16.7 MT/ha with yearly increments (CAI) of 7.1 to 11.0 MT/ha.
|
||
Apparently, the annual productivity ranges from 3 to 17 MT/ha. Such biomass could and
|
||
does serve as a source of energy in temperate forests. The wood is an excellent fuel,^^"^ and
|
||
would probably make good charcoal.
|
||
B iotic factors — Wooly aphis often covers the surface of leaves of European beech; it
|
||
is controlled by application of oil spray. Nicotine sulfate also is used when young leaves
|
||
162 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
first appear. Trees are relatively free of fungal and bacterial diseases and are not seriously
|
||
damaged by insects or other p e s t s . The Agriculture Handbook 165"^ lists the following as
|
||
affecting this species: Armillaria mellea, Endothia gyrosa. Massaria macrospora, Nectria
|
||
cinnabarina, Phomopsis spp., and Phytophthora cactorum. Erineum — leaf deformity caused
|
||
by mites, Leaf Scorch — cause unknown, and Mottle Leaf — cause unknown are also listed.
|
||
In addition, Browne^^ lists: Fungi — Armillaria mucida, Asteroporium hoffmannii, Auri-
|
||
cularia auricula-judae, Bulgaria inquinans, Cerrena unicolor, Daedalea quercina, Endothia
|
||
parasitica. Fistulina hepática. Pomes annosus, F. conchatus, F. fomentarius, F. fraxineus,
|
||
F. pinicola, Ganoderma applanatum, Gnomonia veneta, Helicobasidium purpureum. Her-
|
||
icium erinaceus, Hydnum cirrhatum, H. diversidens, Hysterographium fraxini, Inonotus
|
||
cuticularis, /. obliquus, Laetiporus sulphureus, Microsphaera alphitoides, Nectria coccinea,
|
||
N. coccinea faginata, N. ditissima, N. galligena, Oxyporus populinus, Phellinus igniaris,
|
||
Pholiota adiposa, Phyllactinia guttata, Phytophthora cinnamomi, P. syringae, Pleurotus
|
||
ostretus, P. ulmarius, Polyporus adustus, P. giganteas, P. squamosus, P. zonatus, Pythium
|
||
debaryanum, P. ultimum, Rosellinia quercina, Steccherinum septentrionale, Stereum hir-
|
||
sutum, S. purpureum, S. rugosum, Trametes hispida, Truncatella hartigii, Ustulina deusta,
|
||
Volvariella bombycina. Angiospermae — Viscum album. Coleóptera — Agrilus viridis.
|
||
Apoderas coryli, Byctiscus betulae, Cerambyx cerdo, Leperisinus varias, Melolontha mel-
|
||
olontha, Mesosa nebulosa, Phyllobius argentatus. Platypus cylindrus, Prionous coriareus,
|
||
Rhynchaenus fagi, Rhynchites betulae, Strophosomus coryli, Xyleborus dispar. Diptera —
|
||
Contarinia fagi, Hartigiola annulipes, Mikola fagi, Oligotrophus fagineus, Phegobia tor-
|
||
natella, Phegomyiafagicola. Hemiptera — Cryptococcus fagi, Fagocyba cruenta, Phyllaphis
|
||
fagi. Hymenoptera — Caliroa annulipes, Nematus fagi. Lepidoptera — Carcina quercana,
|
||
Cossus cossus, Diurnea fagella, Ectropis crepuscularia, Hepialus humuli, Laspeyresia fa-
|
||
giglandana, Lithocolletis faginella, Lymantria monacha, Nepticula hemargyrella, N. tityr-
|
||
ella, Operophtera bramata, Strophedra weirana, Tortrix viridana. Aves — Columba
|
||
palumbus. Mammalia — Apodemus sylvaticus, Clethrionomys glarcolus. Dama dama. Mi
|
||
crotis agrestis, Sciurus carolinensis, S. vulgaris.
|
||
163
|
||
GINKGO BILOBA L. (GINKGOACEAE) — Ginkgo, Maidenhair Tree
|
||
Uses — Valued by the Orientals as a sacred tree, for food, medicine, and ritual. Once
|
||
the acrid nauseous pulp is removed from around them, the seeds can be boiled or roasted
|
||
to make a delicacy, the nut, with a flavor likened by one author to mild Swiss cheese. As
|
||
a delicacy at feasts, the nuts are supposed to aid digestion and alleviate the effects of drinking
|
||
too much wine. Important in oriental medicine, the ginkgo is now under cultivation as a
|
||
medicinal plant in the Occident. Chinese use the seed to wash clothing. Seed are digested
|
||
in wine to make a cosmetic detergent.The thick fleshy seed coat is used as an insecticide.
|
||
The light, yellowish, brittle wood is used for chess-boards and toys. Very valuable in highly
|
||
polluted air as an ornamental shade tree, along streets and in parks.
|
||
Folk medicine — According to Hartwell,the nuts are used in folk remedies for cancer
|
||
in China, the plant for corns in Japan. In China, macerated in vegetable oil for 100 days,
|
||
the fruit pulp is traditionally used for asthma, bronchitis, gonorrhea, tuberculosis, and
|
||
worms.^ According to Monachino,"^*^ the nauseous fruit juice becomes antitubercular after
|
||
immersing in oil for three months. This activity is not lost with sterilization at 100°C for
|
||
30 min. Daily administration of 150 gm/kg of the extract of the oil-immersed fruits showed
|
||
definite activity against Mycobacterium tuberculosis in guinea pigs. Pan-fried seeds are used
|
||
for leucorrhea, polyuria, seminal emissions, and tuberculosis; seeds, seedcoats, or leaves
|
||
are used for asthma, cough, leucorrhea, spermatorrhea. Seeds are considered antitussive,
|
||
astringent, sedative. Raw seed is said to be anticancer, antivinous; with a fishy taste; they
|
||
164 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
are consumed, dyed red, at Chinese weddings; said to help bladder ailments, blenorrhea,
|
||
and uterine fluxes. Used for cardiovascular ailments in Szechuan. Ginkgolic acid is active
|
||
against the tubercle bacillus. Elsewhere, leaf extracts are used in peripheral arterial circulation
|
||
problems like arteriosclerotic angiopathy, post-thrombotic syndrome, diabetic vasoconstric
|
||
tion with gangrene and angina, intermittent claudication, Raynaud’s disease. Extracts are
|
||
inhaled for ear, nose, and throat ailments like bronchitis and chronic rhinitis.^
|
||
Chemistry — Per 100 g, seeds (ZMB) contain 403 calories, 10.2 to 10.5% protein, 3.1
|
||
to 3.5% fat, 83.0% total carbohydrate, 1.3 g fiber, 3.1 to 3.8 g ash, 11 mg Ca, 327 mg P,
|
||
2.6 mg Fe, 15.3 mg Na, 1139 mg K, 392 mg beta-carotene equivalent, 0.52 mg thiamine,
|
||
0.26 mg riboflavin, 6.1 mg niacin, and 54.5 mg ascorbic acid.®^ Dry kernels (ca. 59% of
|
||
the seed weight) contain; 6% sucrose, 67.9% starch, 13.1% protein, 2.9% fat, 1.6% pen
|
||
tosans, 1% fiber, and 3.4% ash. The globulin of the kernel, accounting for 60% of the total
|
||
nitrogen, is rich in tryptophane. Fruit pulp, bitter and astringent, contains a volatile oil and
|
||
a number of fatty acids from formic to caprylic. Press-juice contains: ginnol (C27H56O),
|
||
bilobol (C2,H3402), ginkgol (C24H34O), ginkgic acid (C24H42O2), ginkgolic (hydroxy) acid
|
||
(C22H34O3), ginkgolic (saturated oxy) acid (C2,H3203), ginkgolic acid (C24H48O2), an acid
|
||
corresponding to the formula C21H42O3, an acidic oil, asparagine, reducing sugars, and
|
||
phosphoric acid. Autumn leaves contain ginnol, sitosterol (C27H64)), ipuranol (C33H56O6),
|
||
shikimic acid or shikimin (C7H10O5), linolenic acid, acacetin, apigenin, and substances
|
||
conforming to the formula CnH,405 and Ci,Hi406. Fallen leaves of the plant contain a bright
|
||
yellow crystalline substance, ginkgetin (C32H220,o). Leafy branches contain ceryl alcohol
|
||
and sterols. Staminate flowers of Paris-grown trees contain 3.27 to 3.57% (ZMB) deoxy
|
||
ribonucleic acid. Male inflorescence may contain raffinose (up to 4% on fresh weight basis).
|
||
Wood contains raffinose and xylan (2.5%). Bark contains tannin dissolved in a pectinous
|
||
mucus.
|
||
Toxicity — Seeds are reputed to be toxic raw, sometimes resulting in children’s deaths.
|
||
According to Duke and Ayensu,^ large quantities can induce convulsions, dyspnea, emesis,
|
||
and pyreticosis. Expressed fruit Juice causes erythema, edema, papules, pustules, and intense
|
||
itching. Some suggest that even old nuts can induce dermatitis. The pollen may cause hay
|
||
fever.
|
||
Description — Deciduous dioecious trees to nearly 35 m tall, often slenderly conical and
|
||
sparsely branched when young, spreading in age. Leaves on stalks up to 7.5 cm long, fan
|
||
shaped, usually 5 to 8 (15 to 20) cm across, with 2 large lobes, usually undulate or notched,
|
||
but with numerous branching parallel veins. Male and female strobili on different trees.
|
||
Males appear in early spring as catkins drooping from short shoots (3 to 6 on one shoot),
|
||
bearing numerous loosely arranged stamens. Female axes arise from short spur shoots in
|
||
pairs or in threes, each with a long stalk bearing on each side a naked ovule, surrounded
|
||
at the base by a collar-like rim. Seed with a yellow fleshy outer covering enveloping the
|
||
woody shell containing the edible kernel.Seeds 400 to 1,150 per kg.
|
||
Germplasm — Reported from the China-Japan Center of Diversity, ginkgo, or cvs thereof,
|
||
is reported to tolerate acid soil, air pollution, disease, frost, insects, and slope. Dallimore
|
||
and Jackson"^^^ describe several ornamental cvs, ‘Aurea’ with leaves yellow even in summer,
|
||
‘Fastigiata’ with the branches almost erect, ‘Laciniata’ with deeply cut leaves, ‘Pendula’
|
||
with weeping branches, and ‘Variegata’ with yellow-variegated leaves.
|
||
Distribution — Rarely seen wild, even in China and Japan, yet doing well widely in the
|
||
temperate world as a cultivar. Rosengarten,^®^ terming it “ unknown in the wild’’, notes that
|
||
it has been cultivated as a sacred tree in Chinese Buddhist temple courtyards for over 1,000
|
||
years. Introduced into America in 1784, it has generally been successful on good sites in
|
||
moist temperate areas of the midwestem and eastern U.S., and along the St. Lawrence River
|
||
in Canada.^
|
||
Ecology — Estimated to range from Cool Temperate Moist to Wet through Warm Tern-
|
||
165
|
||
perate Moist to Wet Forest Life Zones, ginkgo is expected to tolerate annual precipitation
|
||
of 8 to 12 dm, annual temperature of 9 to 14°C, and pH of 4.5 to 6. Waterlogging, strong
|
||
winds, hardpan, and alkaline soils are to be avoided. According to Balz,"^^^ though ginkgo
|
||
tolerates cold, frost, and snow, it does well with summer temperatures above 25°C and air
|
||
relative-humidity ca. 50 to 60%. Monthly rainfall in summer should not fall below 40 mm.
|
||
Deep, light, mellow soils, well-drained and aerated, produce optimal growth. Good growth
|
||
is reported on soils with 2% coarse sand, 10% fine sand, 37% coarse silt, 40% fine silt,
|
||
and 11% clay, as well as 5% coarse sand, 45% fine sand, 25% coarse silt, 15% fine silt,
|
||
and 10% clay. Soils should not contain more than 10 to 15% clay. A pH of 5 to 5.5 is
|
||
recommended with 100 to 200 ppm P2O5, 260 to 400 ppm K2O, 60 to 120 ppm Mg, 3 to
|
||
5% humus, and <1% salts. The soil should warm up early in spring with late autumn leaf
|
||
fall; i.e., no frost between April 1 and October 31 (7 month or more growing season).
|
||
Isolation of 1,800 to 2,000 hr/year (250 hr/month midsummer) is considered adequate.
|
||
C ultivation — Chinese say that triquetrous seeds produce male trees, lenticular seeds
|
||
produce females. Seeds germinate readily but grow slowly. Cuttings take as long as 2 years
|
||
to root. Seed should be cold-stratified 30 to 60 days for seed collected before completion
|
||
or after ripening. Germinative capacity may vary from about (0 to) 30 to 85%. For amenity
|
||
plantings, seeds should be sown in furrows in November and covered with 5 to 8 cm soil
|
||
and a sawdust mulch. Based on limited studies, one Swiss firm, planning to grow the plant
|
||
in the U.S., suggested sowing the seed under plastic tunnels at a spacing of 25 x 4 cm,
|
||
equalling ca. 1,000,000 seed per ha. With an 80% germination rate, there were 800,000
|
||
plants per ha, held in the tunnel for 2 years, expected to attain 30 cm the first year, 1.2 m
|
||
the second. In autumn of year 2 or spring of year 3, taproots are shortened to 10 to 15 cm
|
||
by under-cutting the stems, cut back to 30 cm by mowing. In the spring of the year, plants
|
||
are outplanted mechanically, at 100 x 30 cm or 33,000 plants per ha.
|
||
H arvestin g — For the pharmaceutical industry, plants are cut back to 30 cm every year
|
||
in October. Trees start bearing fruits at ca. age 25"^^^ (Monachino, 1956) or 30-40 years^
|
||
(Ag. Handbook 450, 1974).
|
||
Y ields and E con om ics — In heavy fruiting years, the trees can bear enough fruits to
|
||
cover 50% of the area circumscribed by the crowns. The Swiss Pharmaceutical firm antic
|
||
ipated 2,400 to 3,200 kg green leaves per ha in the third year (first year outplanted), 6,000
|
||
to 8,000 in the second year outplanted, and 20,000 to 25,000 kg in the third year outplanted.
|
||
E nergy — From a biomass point of view, the ginkgo is not very promising as an energy
|
||
species. The pulp and seed husks are waste products, when the nuts are gathered. Both
|
||
could be extracted for chemurgics, then processed into energy products. Extracted leaves
|
||
could also be useful for biomass fuels.
|
||
B iotic factors — According to Monachino,the tree is not attacked by insects and it
|
||
is resistant to disease. The A griculture H andbook 165"^ reports the following as affecting
|
||
ginkgo: F om es connatus (sapwood or wound rot), G lom erella cingulata (leaf spot, anthrac-
|
||
nose), M eloidogyne sp. (root knot nematodes), P h yllosticta ginkgo (leaf spot), P hym atotri-
|
||
chum om nivorum , P olyporu s spp. (sapwood rot), and X ylaria longeana (seed rot).
|
||
166 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
GNETUM GNEMON L. (GNETACEAE) — Manindjo, Malindjo, Tangkil
|
||
Uses — In India, the seeds are eaten after roasting or cooking. Filipinos use the fruits as
|
||
a coffee substitute.Fruits are first peeled and then cooked in Java; then the homy testa
|
||
can be separated; kernels are then pounded and sundried. This mass is then fried in coconut
|
||
oil and salted to eat with rice. Also sweetened and eaten as a delicacy with tea or coffee.
|
||
Young leaves are eaten, raw or steamed. Young leaves and inflorescences are cooked with
|
||
sea food.^^® In Fiji, young leaves are cooked with coconut milk. Bark yields a fiber used
|
||
for making rope.^^ To obtain the strong fiber, durable in sea water, the branches are peeled
|
||
and the bark beaten and split into fine filaments. With good tensile and breaking strengths,
|
||
the fiber is valued for fishing and nets.^® The wood from old trees is dark, brittle, and not
|
||
very durable. Younger poles are used for mooring posts for rafts and boats. Branches may
|
||
be split for cooperage.
|
||
Folk medicine — Indochinese use the roots as a general antidote to poison.
|
||
Chemistry — Per 100 g, the kernel is reported to contain 30 g H2O, 10.9 g protein, 1.6
|
||
g fat, 52.9 g total carbohydrate, 0.9 g fiber, and 1.7 g ash. Young leaves and stem tips
|
||
contain 81.9% H^O, 1.33% ash, 0.24% P2O5, 0.11% CaO, and 0.01% Fe203."''
|
||
Toxicity — If eaten raw, the young leaves, inflorescences and fmits may irritate the
|
||
mouth.
|
||
Description — Tree (sometimes lianoid) 5 to 22 m high, the crown narrow, conical;
|
||
tmnk straight or somewhat crooked; main branches whorled, often somewhat drooping.
|
||
Leaves opposite, shortly stalked, oblong-lanceolate or elliptic-oblong; base acute, obtuse or
|
||
rounded, apex shortly acuminate, acute; entire, thinly coriaceous, above dark-green, shining,
|
||
beneath light-green, pinnatinerved, 5 to 20 cm long, 3 to 8 cm wide, petiole 0.5 to 1 cm
|
||
long. Flowers dioecious, sometimes apparently monoecious, in stalked articulate spikes
|
||
composed of 5 to 8 whorls; whorls supported by an undulate cup. Male spikes single or
|
||
fascicled, 3 to 5 cm long; female spikes solitary, usually longer than the male ones, to 10
|
||
cm long; stalks of the inflorescences 1.2 to 2 cm long. Fruits sessile, ellipsoid, shortly
|
||
167
|
||
cuspidate, 2 to 2.5 cm long, dark-red when ripe, containing a single large starchy edible
|
||
seed.^^’^^^
|
||
Germplasm — Reported from the Indochinese-Indonesian Center of Diversity, manindjo,
|
||
or CVS thereof, is reported to tolerate alternating dry and wet seasons. Var. ovalifolium is
|
||
considered the wild type, var. gnemon the cultivar.
|
||
Distribution — Native from Assam to Malaysia and Fiji, introduced to Java, Sumatra,
|
||
and else where.
|
||
Ecology — Better adpated to seasonal than to ever-humid tropical forests.
|
||
Cultivation — Cultivated in Asian plains, extending easily to an altitude of 1200 m.
|
||
Sometimes planted in orchards, but mostly in mixed gardens. In the Solomon Islands, seeds
|
||
may be sown, but more frequently, seedlings are transplanted from beneath established trees.
|
||
Vegetative propagation is not known in Santa Cruz on the Solomons. Trees sometimes polled
|
||
to keep them low. They recover readily from pruning.
|
||
Harvesting — In Santa Cruz, Solomon Islands, fruiting peaks around September to
|
||
October and March to April.Fibers are said to be best harvested when trees are 5 m tall.
|
||
Notable for their ability to recover from the near girdling induced by fiber harvest, the older
|
||
trees, often scarred, may be harvested again.
|
||
Yields and economics — Rare in the markets of Malaya, more common in Java.^^
|
||
Energy — In Fiji, at least, the plant is used for firewood.
|
||
Biotic factors — No data available.
|
||
168 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
HELIANTHUS ANNUUS L. (ASTERACEAE) — Sunflower
|
||
Uses — Cultivated primarily for the seeds which yield the world’s second most important
|
||
source of edible oil. Sunflower oil is used for cooking, margarine, salad dressings, lubri
|
||
cation, soaps, and illumination. A semi-drying oil, it is used with linseed and other drying
|
||
oils in paints and varnishes. Decorticated press-cake is used as a high protein food for
|
||
livestock. Kernels eaten by humans raw, roasted and salted, or made into flour. Poultry and
|
||
cage birds are fond of raw kernels. Flowers yield a yellow dye. Plants used for fodder,
|
||
silage and green-manure crop. Hulls provide filler in livestock feeds and bedding.
|
||
Folk medicine — Medicinally, seeds are diuretic, expectorant, and used for colds, coughs,
|
||
throat, and lung ailments. According to Hartwell,the flowers and seeds are used in folk
|
||
remedies for cancer in Venezuela, often incorporated in white wine. Reported to be anodyne.
|
||
169
|
||
antiseptic, aphrodisiac, bactericidal, deobstruent, diuretic, emollient, expectorant, insecti
|
||
cidal, malaria preventive, sunflower is a folk remedy for aftosa, blindness, bronchiectasis,
|
||
bronchitis, carbuncles, catarrh, cold, colic, cough, diarrhea, dysentery, dysuria, epistaxis,
|
||
eyes, fever, flu, fractures, inflammations, laryngitis, lungs, malaria, menorrhagia, pleuritis,
|
||
rheumatism, scorpion stings, snakebite, splenitis, urogenital ailments, whitlow, and wounds.
|
||
Chemistry — Per 100 g, the seed is reported to contain 560 calories, 4.8 g H2O, 24.0
|
||
g protein, 47.3 g fat, 19.4 g total carbohydrate, 3.8 g fiber, 4.0 g ash, 120 mg Ca, 837 mg
|
||
P, 7.1 mg Fe, 30 p,g Na, 920 mg K, 30 mg beta-carotene equivalent, 1.96 mg thiamine,
|
||
0.23 mg riboflavin, 5.4 mg niacin, and 0 mg ascorbic acid. Seeds contain 25 to 35 % oil,
|
||
but cultivars have been bred in Russia with up to 50% oil. Oil contains 44 to 72% linoleic
|
||
acid, and 13 to 20% protein of high biological value and digestibility. Stems and husks are
|
||
rich in potash.
|
||
The forage (ZMB) contains 8.8% protein, 2.9% fat, 77.2% total carbohydrate, 30.3 g
|
||
fiber, and 11.1 g ash. Young shoots contain: 13.0% protein, 1.9% fat, 70.3% total car
|
||
bohydrate, 20.4 g fiber, 14.8 g ash, 1,670 mg Ca, and 370 mg P per 100 g. The flowers
|
||
contain 12.7% protein, 13.7% fat, 64.3% total carbohydrate, 32.9 g fiber, 9.3 g ash, 630
|
||
mg Ca, and 80 mg P per 100 Sunflower oil has a high concentration of linoleic acid,
|
||
intermediate level of oleic acid, and very low levels of linolenic acid. The saturated acids,
|
||
palmitic and stearic, rarely exceed 12%, and the minor acids, lauric, arachidic, behenic,
|
||
lignoceric, eicosenoic, etc. rarely add up to as much as 2%. Tocopherol, or vitamin E, is
|
||
an important vitamin and natural antioxidant. Sunflower oil is somewhat unique in that the
|
||
alpha form predominates, with 608, 17, and 11 mg/kg of alpha, beta, and gamma, compared
|
||
with 116, 34, and 737, respectively, for soybean oil.^^
|
||
Description — Variable, erect, often unbranched, fast-growing, annual herb; stems 0.7
|
||
to 3.5 m tall, hirsute. Leaves alternate, ovate, long-petioled, lamina with 3 main veins, 10
|
||
to 30 cm long, 5 to 20 cm wide, apex acute or acuminate, lower leaves opposite and cordate.
|
||
Flowering head terminal on main stem, 10 to 40 cm in diameter, rotating to face the sun,
|
||
sometimes drooping, heads on lateral branches smaller; outer ray flowers neuter with yellow
|
||
ligulate corolla, disc florets numerous, spirally arranged, perfect; ovary inferior with single
|
||
basal ovule. Achenes obovoid, compressed, slightly 4-angled, variable in size and color,
|
||
seldom less than 1 cm long, usually from 1 to 1.5 cm long, full-colored or striped. Taproot
|
||
strong, penetrating to depth of 3 m and with large lateral spread of surface roots. Flowers
|
||
late summer and fall; fruits fall.^^^
|
||
Germplasm — Reported from the North American (and secondarily, the Eurosiberian)
|
||
Center of Diversity, sunflower, or cvs thereof, is reported to tolerate disease, drought, frost,
|
||
fungi, high pH, laterite, limestone, low pH, mycobacteria, photo-period, poor soil, rust,
|
||
salt, sand, smog, virus, weeds, and waterlogging.®^ Botanically, the sunflower is treated as
|
||
the following subspecies: ssp. lenticularis is the wild sunflower; ssp. annuus is the weedy
|
||
wild sunflower; and ssp. macrocarpus is cultivated for edible seeds. Cultivars are divided
|
||
into several types: Giant types: 1.8 to 4.2 m tall, late maturing, heads 30 to 50 cm diameter,
|
||
seeds laige, white or gray, or with black stripes; oil content rather low; ex. ‘Mammoth
|
||
Russian’. Semi-dwarf types: 1.3 to 1.8 m tall, early maturing, heads 17 to 23 cm diameter,
|
||
seeds smaller, black, gray or striped; oil content higher; ex., ‘Pole Star’ and ‘Jupiter’. Dwarf
|
||
types: 0.6 to 1.4 m tall, early maturing, heads 14 to 16 cm diameter, seeds small, oil content
|
||
highest; ex., ‘Advance’ and ‘Sunset’. Gene centers are in the Americas, with genuine
|
||
resources for resistance in southern U.S. and Mexico. Two types of male sterility are known.
|
||
Although “ sunchoke” is the name given to the hybrid with the Jerusalem artichoke, much
|
||
of what is sold as sunchoke in the U.S. is, in fact, straight Jerusalem artichoke. (2n =
|
||
3 4 )82,278
|
||
Distribution — Native to western North America, sunflower is one of a few crops to
|
||
have evolved within the present confines of the U.S. Early introduced to Europe and Russia,
|
||
the species has now spread to countries both tropical and temperate.
|
||
170 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
Ecology — Sunflowers are grown from the Equator to 55°N Lat. In the tropics, they
|
||
grow better at medium to high elevations, but tolerate the drier lowlands. They thrive
|
||
wherever good crops of com are grown. Young plants withstand mild freezing. Plants are
|
||
intolerant of shade. As sunflowers have highly efficient root systems, they can be grown in
|
||
areas which are too dry for many crops. Plants are quite drought-resistant except during
|
||
flowering. In South Africa, reasonable yields have been obtained with 25 cm of rainfall by
|
||
dwarf CVS. Giant types require more moist conditions. Crops may be grown on a wide range
|
||
of soils, including poor soils, provided they are deep and well-drained. Plants are intolerant
|
||
of acid or waterlogged soils. Ranging from Boreal Moist through Tropical Thom to Wet
|
||
Forest Life Zones, sunflower tolerates annual precipitation of 2 to 40 dm (mean of 195 cases
|
||
= 11.4), annual temperature of 6 to 28°C (mean of 194 cases = 19.6), and pH of 4.5 to
|
||
8.7 (mean of 121 cases = 6.6)®^’^^*
|
||
Cultivation — Seed, harvested at 12% moisture content and stored, will retain viability
|
||
for several years. Sunflower production may be adapted to mechanized or unmechanized
|
||
societies. Propagation is always by seed. Plant with com or beet planter, 2.5 to 7.5 cm
|
||
deep, spaced 0.2 m apart in 0.6 to 0.9 m rows; seed rate of 5.6 kg/ha, giving about 62,500
|
||
plants per ha. May be planted earlier in spring than com, since plants are more tolerant to
|
||
frost. Early weed control is an important factor in yield, so cultivate lightly and early.
|
||
Sunflowers respond well to a balanced fertilizer based on soil test; usually a 1-2-3 NPK
|
||
ratio is best, with a need for boron and other trace elements on lighter soils. Application of
|
||
foliar fertilizers of liquid NPK on plants increases yield 62% with one application and 97%
|
||
with two applications. Sunflowers should not occur in rotation more than once in every 4
|
||
years, and should not be in rotations with potatoes.
|
||
Harvesting — Crop matures about 4 months from sowing; some Russian cvs mature in
|
||
70 days. Harvest when involucral bracts turn yellow and seeds become loose, but before
|
||
shedding begins. Harvesting methods are similar to those of com: heads are gathered, dried,
|
||
and threshed. For fodder or silage, crop is harvested at the flowering stage. Seed oil is either
|
||
cold- or hot-pressed. Cold-pressed oil is usually pale-yellow, with a mild taste and pleasant
|
||
odor, much esteemed as a salad and cooking oil, especially for butter substitutes. Hot-pressed
|
||
oil is reddish-yellow and is used for technical purposes and as a burning oil. With modem
|
||
methods, hot-pressed oil may be refined for edible purposes.
|
||
Yields and economics — Average yields range from 900 to 1,575 kg/ha of seed; however,
|
||
yields of over 3,375 kg/ha have been reported. Heads may contain 1,000 to 4,000 florets,
|
||
with the potential of as many seeds. Yields from dried seeds are 40% oil, 35% protein meal,
|
||
and 20 to 25% hulls. In 1979, the world low production yield was 308 kg/ha in Algeria,
|
||
the international production yield was 1,266 kg/ha, and the world high production yield was
|
||
2,420 kg/ha in A ustria.W ith DM yields ranging from 4 to 9 MT/ha (in 3 months) and
|
||
seed yields ranging from 300 to more than 3,000 kg/ha, a straw factor of 3 seems appropriate.
|
||
With an average yield of ca. 1,500 kg/ha (North Dakota), a hectare would yield nearly 225
|
||
gallons of oil, 75% of which could be extracted on the farm. Twelve to 15 gallons are
|
||
required to raise a hectare; hence the fuel from one hectare could produce 8 to 11 hectares
|
||
of crop. In the U.S., the highest average commercial yields occurred in North Dakota and
|
||
Minnesota, which averaged 1,170 and 1,267 kg/ha respectively, compared with 1,019 kg/ha
|
||
for Texas. Pryde and Doty^^® suggest average oil yields of 589 kg/ha from 1,469 kg/ha seed.
|
||
Telek and Martin^^^ suggest oil yields of 450 kg/ha. Experimentally, at Davis, California,
|
||
April plantings yielded 2,592 to 3,181 kg/ha (45.5 to 48.5% oil). May plantings, 2,676 to
|
||
3,161 kg/ha (45.5 to 48.4% oil), June plantings 956 to 2,643 kg/ha (40.8 to 43.7% oil),
|
||
and July plantings 702 to 2,447 kg/ha (40.2 to 42.6% oil). The lowest oil yield was 282
|
||
kg/ha, the highest, 1,543 kg/ha.^^ In India, rain-fed sunflower gave seed yields of 1,120
|
||
kg/ha in pure stands, 1,050 to 1,070 intercropped with cowpea, and 1,010 to 1,070 kg/ha
|
||
intercropped with peanuts.Volunteer sunflowers themselves may constitute a weed prob
|
||
171
|
||
lem, as few as 3/m^ reducing wheat yields by 16%, 23/m^ reducing yields by 35%. World
|
||
production of sunflower seed in 1970 was 9.6 million MT, grown on 8.2 million ha, yielding
|
||
1,170 kg/ha. Largest producers are the USSR, Rumania, Bulgaria, Argentina, Yugoslavia,
|
||
Turkey, and South Africa. In the tropics, Tanzania produces 10,000 to 20,000 MT per year.
|
||
Cultivars grown in Minnesota contain higher percentages of the desirable linoleic acid than
|
||
same cultivars in other states. Major importers of sunflower seed were Italy, West Germany,
|
||
and Japan. Oil prices in the U.S. in 1970 were $331/ton. Production costs in fully mechanized
|
||
production in the U.S. is about SlOO/ha with fertilizer, $87 without; hand labor figured at
|
||
$2/hr. By 1982, sunflower oil was trading at $.59/kg compared to $.50 to .54 for coconut,
|
||
$.53 for com oil, $.48 for cottonseed, $.59 for linseed, and $.42 for soybean.
|
||
Energy — According to the USD A phytomass files, annual productivity ranges from
|
||
3 to 15 MT/ha. North Dakota researchers are testing a small auger press, operated on the
|
||
farm, that can extract ca.75 to 80% of the oil in sunflower seeds, or ca. 55 gallons (barely
|
||
more than one 42-gallon barrel) from an average yield of 1,400 Ib/acre. It takes one acre’s
|
||
production to farm and produce 8 to 11 more acres, our usual 10:1 ratio. In North Carolina,
|
||
Harwoodconcluded that sunflower seed was most promising for on-farm production of
|
||
vegetable oil fuels; soybeans, peanuts, and cottonseed considered not well-suited. Sunflowers
|
||
yield ca. 2.5 MT/ha, with ca. 40% oil, indicating a potential of 250 gallons of oil per ha
|
||
if seed were processed in a mill. On-farm processing would produce closer to 200 gallons
|
||
(ca. 5 barrels) at a cost of more than $2.00 per gallon. Production costs are less than one
|
||
barrel per hectare. Harwood puts the energetic returns at greater than 5:1 compared to 3:1
|
||
for peanuts, 2:1 for soybeans, and 1:1 for cottonseed. Pratt et al.^^^ report an endurance test
|
||
involving engines fueled with various mixtures of sunflower oil (25 to 50%) with diesel oil
|
||
(75 to 50%). Two motors needed repair, ten were operating with no apparent difficulties,
|
||
of which two were said to be doing even better. Ohio yields on poor soils (Wood County)
|
||
were only 260 Ib/acre (yielding 9.3 gallons of screw press oil); and on good soils (Champaign
|
||
County), 1,680 Ib/acre (yielding 69.1 gallons oil) cropped after wheat in a double-cropping
|
||
system. Sunflower oil should be dewaxed before being used as a diesel substitute. In
|
||
Australia, sunflower was first commercially planted in 1967, has great potential for expansion
|
||
as a rainfed energy crop. Little water is required for processing oilseeds (unlike ethanol),
|
||
and the seed coat can provide sufficient energy for heat and steam for oil extraction.
|
||
Australians figure a net energy gain of 2 € for every 3 € produced. A hundred kg of dry
|
||
seed will yield about 40 kg oil, 15 to 25 kg hulls, and 40 kg proteinaceous meal. Hulls
|
||
have been pressed into fuel “ logs” . Threshed heads are ground and fed to cattle elsewhere.
|
||
The heads are rich in pectin. Studies have shown that sunflower yields 33.1 MT silage per
|
||
ha, compared to com at 19.26 MT/ha. Annual DM productivity ranges from 3 to 15 MT/ha.
|
||
DM yields averaged closer to 5 MT spaced at 43,000 plants per ha, 8 MT spaced at 172,000
|
||
plants per ha near Clarksville, Maryland. In these experiments, the sunflower followed
|
||
barley.Jake Page’s discussion^"^^ is picturesque: “ But I happen to like sunflow
|
||
ers . . . They can be grown almost anywhere in the country and you can grow between 500
|
||
and 3,000 pounds of sunflower seeds on an American acre in three months if you’re clever.
|
||
The soil can be lousy, the rainfall terrible . . . if the average American com farmer put 10
|
||
percent of his land into sunflowers, he could become self-sufficient in fuel. It seems that
|
||
using vegetable oil may be more efficient, in a net energy sense, than growing plants for
|
||
conversion into alcohol (another nice alternative fuel) because the processing for alcohol is
|
||
more elaborate, expensive, and energy intensive.”
|
||
Biotic factors — In the USDA’s Agriculture Re sear a new pest of sunflower is
|
||
reported. A scarab beetle {Phyllophaga lancolata) devastated more than 400 ha near Lehman,
|
||
Texas. Eucosma womonana, is also a newly reported sunflower pest in Texas. Seed is set
|
||
low when selfed, as most cvs are self-incompatible. Florets on one head open over 5 to 6
|
||
days and may wait 2 weeks for fertilization. Cross-pollination may be facilitated by 2 to 3
|
||
172 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
hives of honeybees per ha, the hives spaced in rows 300 to 400 m apart, as they need to
|
||
be distributed to give coverage to all blooms. Gophers dig up seeds; birds eat tremendous
|
||
amounts of seeds from the maturing crop. Insects can be destructive to seeds not stored
|
||
properly. The following fungi are known to cause diseases in sunflowers: Albugo trago-
|
||
pogonis, Alternarla tenuis, Alternarla zinniae, Armillaria mellea, Ascochyta helianthi, Bo
|
||
trytis cinerea, Cercospora bidentis, Cercospora helianthi, Cercospora helianthicola,
|
||
Cercospora pachypus, Corticium rolfsii, Cystopus cubicus, Cystopus tragopogonis, Dia-
|
||
porthe arctii, Diplodina helianthi, Entyloma polysporum, Erysiphe chicoracearum, Fusar
|
||
ium acuminatum, Fusarium conglutinans, Fusarium culmorum, Fusarium equiseti, Fusarium
|
||
javanicum, Fusarium oxysporum, Fusarium sambucinum, Fusarium scirpi, Fusarium sem-
|
||
itecum, Fusarium solani, Helminthosporium helianthi, Leptosphaeria helianthi, Leveillula
|
||
compositarum, Leveillula taurica, Macrophomina phaseoli, Oidium helianthi, Ophiobolus
|
||
helianthi, Phialea cynthoides, Phoma olerácea, Phymatotrichum omnivorum, Plasmopara
|
||
halstedii, Puccinia helianthi, Pythium debaryanum, Pythium irregulare, Phythium splen-
|
||
dens, Pythium ultimum, Rhabdospora helianthicola, Rhizoctonia rocorum, Rhizoctonia so
|
||
lani, Rhizoctonia bataticola, Rhizopus nodosus, Sclerotinia fuckeliana, Sclerotinia libertiana,
|
||
Sclerotinia minor, Sclerotinia sclerotiorum, Sclerotium rolfsii, Septoria helianthi, Sphaer-
|
||
othecafulginea, Sphaerotheca humuli, Uromycesjunci, Verticillium albo-atrum, Verticillium
|
||
dahliae. Bacteria reported as infecting sunflowers include: Agrobacterium tumefaciens. Bac
|
||
terium melleum, Erwinia aroides. Pseudomonas cichorii. Pseudomonas helianthi, and Pseu
|
||
domonas solanacearum. Virus diseases reported from sunflowers are Apple mosaic, Argentine
|
||
sunflower. Aster yellows, Brazilian tobacco streak. Cucumber mosaic. Tomato spotted wilt.
|
||
Peach ringsport. Peach yellow-bud mosaic. Pelargonium leaf-curl. Tobacco necrosis. To
|
||
bacco ringspot, and Yellows. Sunflowers are parasitized by the following flowering plants:
|
||
Cuscuta pentagona. Cuscuta arvensis, Orobanche aegyptiaca, Orobanche cumana. Oro
|
||
banche muteli. Orobanche ramosa. Striga hermonthica. Striga asiatica. Striga lutea. Striga
|
||
senegalensis. Sunflowers are attacked by many nematodes: Anguina balsamophila, Aphe-
|
||
lenchoides ritzemabosi, Ditylenchus destructor, Ditylenchus dipsaci, Helicotylenchus cav-
|
||
enessi, Helicotylenchus microcephalus, Helicotylenchus microlobus, Helicotylenchus
|
||
pesudorobustus, Heterodera schachtii, Longidorus maximus, Meloidognye arenaria, Me-
|
||
loidogyne hap la, Meloidogyne incognita acrita, Meloidogyne javanica, Meloidogyne tha-
|
||
mesi, Paratylenchus minutus, Pratylenchus penetrans, Rotylenchulus reniformis, Scutellonema
|
||
clathricaudatum, Trichodorus christiei, dXiá Xiphinema ifacolum^'^^^'^^^
|
||
173
|
||
HYPHAENE THEBAICA (L.) Mart. (ARECACEAE) Doum Palm
|
||
U ses — Unripe kernels are edible, but the ripe kernels are hard as a marble, and even
|
||
strung together to make a weapon. In Bomu Africa, the nuts are pounded to make a meal
|
||
sold instead of millet. The rind of the fruits is dry and sweet, edible in some, inedible in
|
||
others. The part of the germinating seedling just below ground is edible, as is the cabbage
|
||
or palm heart. Trunks yield a sago starch. Osbom^'*^ relates how people in Kharga gnaw on
|
||
the glossy brown fruits. Though fibrous and tough, the fruits have a pleasant flavor suggestive
|
||
of carob or ginger bread. Beverages are made from the fruits. In parts of the Sahara desert,
|
||
the spongy internal parts of the fruit are an important dietary element. Mixed with date
|
||
infusion, the doum nut constitutes a cooling drink much valued medicinally. Stalks of the
|
||
cotyledons are eaten. Inner leaves are valued for forage, while the outer may be used for
|
||
fuel. Fronds, usually unexpanded, used in plaited strips to make mats, hats, baskets, fans,
|
||
bowls, and ropes. A fiber obtained from the root is used for snares and fish nets. Fronds
|
||
of the palm are used for fuel. The hard fruit, used as vegetable ivory, is also the source of
|
||
a black dye. Stems are used in house construction. Ashes are used as
|
||
F olk m ed icin e — According to HartwelF^^ the fruits are used in folk remedies for
|
||
indurations of the limbs. The thick root is used in African folk remedies for hematuria, in
|
||
some cases due to bilharzia. According to Boulos,"*^ the resin from the tree, diaphoretic and
|
||
diuretic, is recommended both for tapeworm and for the bites of poisonous animals. The
|
||
fruits are astringent and anthelmintic. Breads made from the fruit have been recommended
|
||
in fluxes. The beverage made from the fruits is recommended, at least around Kharga, for
|
||
174 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
strenghtening the heart and for gastroenteritis. Mixed with date infusion, the doum is rec
|
||
ommended for febrile conditions on the Sahara.
|
||
Chemistry — Per 100 g, the dried nut contains 395 calories, 5.7 to 6.2 g H2O, 2.4 to
|
||
5.0 g protein, 4.9 to 8.0 g fat, 6.5 to 11.0 g fiber, 1.9 to 5.4 g ash, 121 to 168 mg Ca,
|
||
and 170 to 281 mg P. GohP*® reports that whole nuts of the doum palm (91.4% DM) contain
|
||
(ZMB): 4.5% crude protein, 24.7% crude fiber, 3.6% ash, 2.6% fat, and 64.6% nitrogen-
|
||
free extract. Ground kernels (90.4% DM) from Somalia contain 9.0% CP, 7.3% CF, 2.8%
|
||
ash, 7.0% EE, and 73.9% NFE. Per 100 g, the seed (ZMB) contains 420 calories, 4.1 g
|
||
protein, 6.8 g fat, 85.7 g total carbohydrate, 10.0 g fiber, 3.3 g ash, 153 mg Ca, and 240
|
||
mg P.^^ According to Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk,^^^ the nut contains 50% mannitol, which
|
||
when hydrolyzed with dilute acid furnishes 56 to 58% reducing sugars, 80% of which is
|
||
mannose.
|
||
Description — Palm to 10 m tall, the trunk branching dichotomously 1 to 2 or more
|
||
times. Leaves large, flabellate, with linear-lanceolate lobes, and numerous upward-curved
|
||
hooks on petioles. Flowers small and whitish, monoecious, the male spadices surrounded
|
||
by pointed male spathe-bracts, branches of female spadix being stouter. Fruits 5 x 5 cm,
|
||
yellowish-brown, globose-guadrangular, with strong fiber surrounding the hard seeds.
|
||
Germplasm — Native to the African and Middle Eastern Centers of Diversity, the doum
|
||
palm is said to tolerate drought and fire. The closely related H . indica Becc., often confused
|
||
with H. th ebaica, is probably the only germplasm native to the Middle East.
|
||
Distribution — Sometimes gregarious, forming dense stands along rivers in hot dry
|
||
valleys of tropical Africa, the Middle East, and western India, especially common in the
|
||
coastal regions of East Africa and in Eritrea.
|
||
Ecology — Flourishes in rich sandy loam. Growth, flowering, and fruiting are luxuriant
|
||
in moist places, but in dry places the fruits become small. With no hard data at hand, I
|
||
estimate that the palm is most at home in Subtropical to Tropical Thom to Moist Forest
|
||
Life Zones, tolerating even drier climates along water-courses. Johnson^^^ calls it a promising
|
||
desert palm for deserts and semideserts up to 600 m. Plants wind-polinated. Fmits dissem
|
||
inated by elephants, baboons, and donkeys, all of which may eat the fmits. Young leaves
|
||
are eaten by camels.
|
||
Cultivation — Cultivated as an ornamental curio, e.g., in India, the palm can be prop
|
||
agated by seed or off-shoots.^®
|
||
Harvesting — Plant parts harvested as needed.
|
||
Yields and economics — No data available.
|
||
Energy — Around Bomu, Africa, the leaves are used as fuel, especially in boiling down
|
||
salt. The sap can be used for alcohol production. Since this is a very destmctive process,
|
||
it has been outlawed in Eritrea and Kenya. The pod yields an active charcoal with high
|
||
decolorizing and absorbing power.
|
||
Biotic factors — Nuts and the beads made from them may be attacked by the scolytid
|
||
beetle, C occotrypes dactyliperda Fabr. Preventive measures are discussed in The W ealth o f
|
||
India
|
||
175
|
||
INOCARPUS EDULIS Forst. (FABACEAE) — Tahiti Chestnut, Otaheite Chestnut, Poly
|
||
nesia Chestnut
|
||
Syn: Inocarpus fagiferus (P ark in son ) F osberg?
|
||
U ses — Nuts said to be edible after processing. Menninger^^ says what I have long
|
||
observed: almost any nut which is difficult to describe is said to taste like a chestnut. So
|
||
with this one. Seeds are sometimes allowed to ferment in pits in the ground. Natives of
|
||
Santa Cruz roast the fruits or slowly dry the unhusked fruit over a fire.^^^ More often they
|
||
are boiled or roasted in ashes. Some Samoans make purees from the cooked seeds. Said to
|
||
be the principle food of the mountaineers of Fiji. Cattle are said to eat the leaves.^^ Seeds
|
||
are strung as beads.Wood used in furniture.
|
||
F olk m ed icin e — Reported to be antidotal to fish poisoning, and useful for blood-shot
|
||
eyes, diarrhea, and hemorrhage.^* Mixed with the fern Drynaria to treat virulent gonorrhea
|
||
in Indonesia. Astringent bark is used for intestinal complaints in Malaya.Seed is boiled
|
||
in coconut milk for parturitional uterine hemorrhage.
|
||
C h em istry — Per 100 g, the seed (ZMB) is reported to contain 426 calories, 6.7 g protein,
|
||
7.9 g fat, 82.8 g total carbohydrate, 4.4 g fiber, 2.6 g ash, 0.46 mg thiamine, and 4 mg
|
||
ascorbic acid.®^ BurkilP^ reports the seeds (ZMB) analyze 7% fat, 10% albumens, 2.5%
|
||
ash, and 80% non-nitrogenous substances, mostly starch.
|
||
D escrip tion — Tree to 25 m tall, handsome; trunks usually deeply furrowed, commonly
|
||
fluted or buttressed; crown dense. Leaves simple, entire, large, oblong-lanceolate, short-
|
||
petioled, pinnately nerved, leathery; stipules very small, soon caducous. Flowers white,
|
||
cream, or yellow, fragrant, in axillary, simple or branched spikes resembling catkins when
|
||
young; bracts small, connate with rachis, somewhat pouched; bracteoles small; calyx tubular-
|
||
campanulate, bilabiate, membranous, irregularly 2- to 5-toothed; petals 4 to 6, usually 5,
|
||
subequal, imbricate in bud, linear-lanceolate, upper part crinkled; stamens twice the number
|
||
of petals, alternately long and short, the longer ones briefly joined to the petals; anthers
|
||
small, uniform, ovary subsessile or short-stalked, 1-, seldom 2-ovuled; style very short;
|
||
stigma oblique. Pod short-stalked, oblique-obovate, flattened, 2-valved, subdrupaceous,
|
||
leathery, indéhiscent, 1-seeded.®
|
||
176 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
Germplasm — Reported from the Australian and Polynesian Centers of Diversity, the
|
||
Tahiti chestnut, or cvs thereof, is reported to tolerate swamps, waterlogging, and perhaps
|
||
some salt. (2n = 20.)^’^^°
|
||
Distribution — Native of eastern Malaysia and the Pacific, cultivated in the Malay
|
||
Peninsula. Cultivated successfully in Peradeniya and Singapore. Allen and Allen describe
|
||
it as ubiquitous throughout the South Pacific Islands.^
|
||
Ecology — Estimated to range from Subtropical Dry to Wet to Tropical Dry through
|
||
Moist Forest Life Zones, Tahiti chestnut is estimated to tolerate annual precipitation of 10
|
||
to 50 dm, annual temperature of 22 to 28°C, and pH of 6.0 to 8.0. Rosengarten says, “ It
|
||
prefers a hot, humid, tropical climate at low altitude, with well-distributed rainfall, and
|
||
thrives along the banks of streams and even in swamps.” Often a second-story component
|
||
of low-lying forest.
|
||
Cultivation — Rarely cultivated. In Santa Cruz, the seeds are sprouted in the shade and
|
||
transplanted. It is more gathered than cultivated.
|
||
Harvesting — Fruits start bearing at about age 8. In Santa Cruz, Solomon Islands, there
|
||
are two main harvests per year, and nuts are stored with the fibrous pods intact after cooking
|
||
in large earth ovens.
|
||
Yields and Economics — No data available.
|
||
Energy — No data available.
|
||
Biotic factors — Nitrogen-fixing nodules were not detected in Philippine specimens.^
|
||
177
|
||
JATROPHA CURCAS L. (EUPHORBIACEAE) — Physic Nut, Purging Nut
|
||
Uses — According to Ochse,^^^ “ the young leaves may be safely eaten, steamed or
|
||
stewed.” They are favored for cooking with goat meat, said to counteract the peculiar smell.
|
||
Though purgative, the nuts are sometimes roasted and dangerously eaten. In India, pounded
|
||
leaves are applied near horses’ eyes to repel flies. The oil has been used for illumination,
|
||
soap, candles, adulteration of olive oil, and making Turkey red oil. Nuts can be strung on
|
||
grass and burned like candlenuts.^^^ Mexicans grow the shrub as a host for the lac insect.
|
||
Ashes of the burned root are used as a salt substitute.A gaceta, Dumag, and Batolos^
|
||
conclude that it has strong molluscicidal activity. Duke and Wain^^ list it for homicide,
|
||
piscicide, and raticide as well. The latex was strongly inhibitory to watermelon mosaic
|
||
virus.Bark used as a fish poison.In South Sudan, the seed as well as the fruit is used
|
||
as a contraceptive.^®^ Sap stains linen and can be used for marking.Little, Woodbury,
|
||
and Wadsworth list the species as a honey plant.
|
||
Folk medicine — According to Harwell,the extracts are used in folk remedies for
|
||
cancer. Reported to be abortifacient, anodyne, antiseptic, cicatrizant, depurative, diuretic,
|
||
emetic, hemostat, lactagogue, narcotic, purgative, rubefacient, styptic, vermifuge, and vul
|
||
nerary, physic nut is a folk remedy for alopecia, anasarca, ascites, bums, carbuncles,
|
||
convulsions, cough, dermatitis, diarrhea, dropsy, dysentery, dyspepsia, eczema, erysipelas,
|
||
fever, gonorrhea, hernia, incontinence, inflammation, jaundice, neuralgia, paralysis, par
|
||
turition, pleurisy, pneumonia, rash, rheumatism, scabies, sciatica, sores, stomachache, sy
|
||
philis, tetanus, thmsh, tumors, ulcers, uterosis, whitlows, yaws, and yellow fever.
|
||
Latex is applied topically to bee and wasp stings.Mauritians massage ascitic limbs with
|
||
178 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
the oil. Cameroon natives apply the leaf decoction in arthritis.Colombians drink the leaf
|
||
decoction for venereal disease.Bahamians drink the decoction for heartburn. Costa Ricans
|
||
poultice leaves onto erysipelas and splenosis. Guatemalans place heated leaves on the breast
|
||
as a lactagogue. Cubans apply the latex to toothache. Colombians and Costa Ricans apply
|
||
the latex to bums, hemorrhoids, ringworm, and ulcers. Barbadians use the leaf tea for
|
||
marasmus, Panamanians for jaundice. Venezuelans take the root decoction for dysentery.
|
||
Seeds are used also for dropsy, gout, paralysis, and skin ailments.Leaves are regarded
|
||
as antiparasitic, applied to scabies; rubefacient for paralysis, rheumatism, also applied to
|
||
hard tumors.Latex used to dress sores and ulcers and inflamed tongues.Seed is viewed
|
||
as aperient; the seed oil emetic, laxative, purgative, for skin ailments. Root is used in
|
||
decoction as a mouthwash for bleeding gums and toothache. Otherwise used for eczema,
|
||
ringworm, and scabies.I received a letter from the Medical Research Center of the
|
||
University of the West Indies shortly after the death of Jamacian singer Robert Morley:
|
||
I just want you to know that this is not because of Bob Morley’s illness, why I am revealing
|
||
this . . . my dream was: this old lady came to me in my sleep with a dish in her hands; she
|
||
handed the dish to me filled with some nuts. 1 said to her, “ What were those?” She did not
|
||
answer. I said to her, “ PHYSIC N U T S.” She said to me, “ This is the cure for cancer.”
|
||
I found this Jamaican dream rather interesting. Four antitumor compounds, including
|
||
jatropham and jatrophone, are reported from other species of Jatropha.®^ Homeopathically
|
||
used for cold sweats, colic, collapse, cramps, cyanosis, diarrhea, and leg cramps.
|
||
Chemistry — Per 100 g, the seed is reported to contain 6.6 g H2O, 18.2 g protein, 38.0
|
||
g fat, 33.5 g total carbohydrate, 15.5 g fiber, and 4.5 g ash.®^ Leaves, which show anti
|
||
leukemic activity, contain alpha-amyrin, beta-sitosterol, stigmasterol, and campesterol, 7-
|
||
keto-beta-sitosterol, stigmast-5-ene-3beta, 7-alpha-diol, and stigmast-5-ene-3beta, 7 beta-
|
||
diol.^^"^ Leaves contain isovitexin and vitexin. From the drug (nut?) saccharose, raffinose,
|
||
stachyose, glucose, fructose, galactose, protein, and an oil, largely of oleic- and linoleic-
|
||
acids.^®^ Poisonous seeds can cause death due to phytotoxin, curcin. Curcasin, arachidic-,
|
||
linoleic-, myristic-, oleic-, palmitic-, and stearic-acids.
|
||
Toxicity — The poisoning is irritant, with acute abdominal pain and nausea about V2
|
||
hour following ingestion. Diarrhea and nausea continue but are not usually serious. Depres
|
||
sion and collapse may occur, especially in children. Two seeds are strong purgative. Four
|
||
to five seeds are said to have caused death, but the roasted seed is said to be nearly innocuous.
|
||
Bark, fruit, leaf, root, and wood are all reported to contain HCN.^^^ Seeds contain the
|
||
dangerous toxalbumin curcin.®^
|
||
Description — Shrub or tree to 6 m, with spreading branches and stubby twigs, with a
|
||
milky or yellowish rufescent exudate. Leaves deciduous, alternate but apically crowded,
|
||
ovate, acute to acuminate, basally cordate, 3- to 5-lobed in outline, 6 to 40 cm long, 6 to
|
||
35 cm broad, the petioles 2.5 to 7.5 cm long. Flowers several to many in greenish cymes,
|
||
yellowish, bell-shaped; sepals 5, broadly deltoid. Male flowers many with 10 stamens, 5
|
||
united at the base only, 5 united into a colum. Female flowers borne singly, with elliptic
|
||
3-celled, triovulate ovary with 3 spreading bifurcate stigmata. Capsules 2.5 to 4 cm long,
|
||
finally drying and splitting into 3 valves, all or two of which commonly have an oblong
|
||
black seed, these ca. 2 x 1
|
||
Germplasm — Reported from the Central and South American Centers of Diversity,
|
||
physic nut, or cvs thereof, is reported to tolerate slope. There is an endemic species in
|
||
Madagascar, J. mahafalensis, with equal energetic promise.
|
||
Distribution — Though native to America, the species is almost pantropical now, widely
|
||
planted as a medicinal plant which soon tends to establish itself. It is listed, e.g., as a weed
|
||
in Brazil, Fiji, Honduras, India, Jamaica, Panama, Puerto Rico, and Salvador.
|
||
Ecology — Ranging from Tropical Very Dry to Moist through Subtropical Thom to Wet
|
||
179
|
||
Forest Life Zones, physic nut is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 4.8 to 23.8 dm
|
||
(mean of 60 cases = 14.3) and annual temperature of 18.0 to 28.5°C (mean of 45 cases
|
||
= 25.2).«2
|
||
Cultivation — Grows readily from cuttings or seeds. Cuttings strike root so easily that
|
||
the plant can be used as an energy-producing living fence post.
|
||
Harvesting — For medicinal purposes, the seeds are harvested as needed. For energy
|
||
purposes, seeds might be harvested all at once, the active medicinal compounds might be
|
||
extracted from the seed, before or after the oil, leaving the oil cake for biomass or manure.
|
||
Yields and economics — According to Gaydou et al.,^®^ seed yields approach 6 to 8
|
||
MT/ha with ca. 37% oil. They calculate that such yields could produce the equivalent of
|
||
2,100 to 2,800 € fuel oil per ha (see table under Energy Section). In Madagascar, they have
|
||
ca. 10,000 ha of purging nut, each producing ca. 2,400 € (or 24 h€) oil per ha for a potential
|
||
production of 240,000 h€.*®'^
|
||
Energy — The clear oil expressed from the seed has been used for illumination and
|
||
lubrication, and more recently has been suggested for energetic purposes, one ton of nuts
|
||
yielding 70 kg refined petroleum, 40 kg “ gasoil leger” (light fuel oil), 40 kg regular fuel
|
||
oil, 34 kg dry tar/pitch/rosin, 270 kg coke-like char, and 200 kg ammoniacal water, natural
|
||
gas, creosote, etc. In their study, Gaydou et al.^®^ compare several possible energy species
|
||
with potential to grow in Malagasy. Oil palm was considered energetically most promising,
|
||
but this species was considered second most promising.
|
||
Crop Fuel Energetic
|
||
production production equivalent
|
||
(MXlia) (eiia) (kwlilia)
|
||
Elaeis guineenis 18—20 3,600-^,000 33,900—37,700
|
||
Jatropha curcas 6—8 2,100—2,800 19,800—26,400
|
||
Aleurites fordii 4—6 1,800—2,700 17,000—25,500
|
||
Saccharum officinarum 35 2,450 16,000
|
||
Ricinus communis 3—5 1,200—2,000 11,300—18,900
|
||
Manihot esculenta 6 1,020 6,600
|
||
Biotic Factors — A griculture H andbook N o. 165 lists the following as affecting Jatropha
|
||
curcas: C litocybe tabescens (root rot), C olletotrichum g loesporioides (leaf spot), and Phak-
|
||
opsora jatro p h ico la (rust)."^
|
||
180 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
JESSENIA BATAUA (Mart.) Burret. (ARECACEAE) — Seje, Mil Pesos, Jagua, Pataba,
|
||
Pataua
|
||
S yn .: Jessenia polycarpa K arst.
|
||
U ses — Fruits provide an oil with a taste almost identical to that of the olive. “ There is
|
||
no question about pataua oil being an excellent edible oil.” ^^^ Ripe fruits are harvested and
|
||
piled up a day or so to encourage further ripening. They are then steamed in water, and the
|
||
pulp separated from the bony seed with a mortar. Brazilians may simple press out the oil.
|
||
The seeds are also consumed as food, and the milky residue from oil extraction, the “ yucuta’ ’,
|
||
is consumed as a beverage. The oil, used as a cooking or edible oil, is also used in medicine.
|
||
A chocolate-colored chicha is made by mashing the fruit, straining out the fruits, and adding
|
||
sugar. Wood is used for both bows and arrow-points.
|
||
181
|
||
Table 1
|
||
JE S S E N IA COMPARISON OF OIL OF
|
||
B A T A U A WITH OLIVE OIL
|
||
Jessenia bataua* Olive oil
|
||
Fatty acid samples {%) samples (%
|
||
Palmitic 13.2 ± 2.1 11.2
|
||
0.6 ± 0.2 1.5
|
||
Palmitoleic
|
||
Stearic 3.6 ± 1.1 2.0
|
||
Oleic 77.7 ± 3.1 76.0
|
||
Linoleic 2.7 ± 1.0 8.5
|
||
0.6 ± 0.4 0.5
|
||
Linolenic
|
||
Other 1.6 (range 0.2 — 4.6)
|
||
Values given as the mean standard deviation of
|
||
12 separate samples.
|
||
From Balick, M. J. and Gershoff, S. N ., Econ. Bot.,
|
||
35, 261, 1981. Copyright 1981, The New York Botan
|
||
ical Garden. With permission.
|
||
Folk medicine — In the Guahibo area, the oil is used for asthma, cough, tuberculosis,
|
||
and other respiratory problems. Elsewhere it is used for bronchitis, catarrh, consumption,
|
||
flu, leprosy, and parturition.^®’^* At least four scientists have speculated that natives gain
|
||
weight, appear healthier with more endurance, and reported fewer respiratory infections
|
||
during the season of daily consumption of “ mil pesos.” Colombians consider the oil ver
|
||
mifugal.*®^
|
||
Chemistry — I repeat Balick and Gershoff s^^ useful table (Table 1) comparing the oil
|
||
of bataua with olive oil, because olive oil has recently gotten press as very salubrious. Note
|
||
that the bataua, like the olive, contains about 80% oleic acid, a feature recently praised in
|
||
Lubrizol’s special high-oleic sunflower. Parenthetically, I add that Johnson*^^ reports much
|
||
lower oleic acid values, 0.48 to 40.67%. He puts the entire fruit’s oil content at 7.4%, the
|
||
mesocarp pulp at 18.2%, and the seed at 3%. If Lubrizol’s sunflower is good for the temperate
|
||
zone, this oil should be great for the tropical zone. I also repeat Balick and Gershoff’s^^
|
||
Table 3. The data suggest that, though tryptophan and lysine were the limiting amino acids,
|
||
bataua protein is better than most grain and legume proteins.(see Table 2.) Balick and
|
||
Gershoff’s Table 4^^ compares the “ milk” of the seje with human milk, cowmilk, and
|
||
soybean milk, (see Table 3.)
|
||
Description — Unbranched palm to 15 (to 25) m tall, the mature trunk spineless (when
|
||
young, the trunk is covered with dark brown fibers and spines to 80 cm long). Leaves
|
||
pinnate, arching, 6 to 8 (to 10) m long, the rachis deep, canaliculate, vaginate at the base.
|
||
Leaflets alternate, lanceolate, acute, 40 to 75 mm wide. Spathe ca. 1 m long, woody,
|
||
terminating in an acute process. Spadix with 100 to 225 racemes, flowers cream-colored;
|
||
petals valvate. Panicles may contain 1,000 fruits, each weighing 10 to 15 g. There may be
|
||
two panicles per year. Fruits drupaceous, ellipsoid to ovoid, 2.5 to 4 cm long, deep purple
|
||
when ripe.^^’^®’^^
|
||
Germplasm — Reported from the South American Center of Diversity, mil peso is
|
||
reported to tolerate waterlogging. Although taxonomists have tended to recognize at least
|
||
two species of Jessenia, Balick and Gershoff^ suggest that there is only one. Guajibo Indians
|
||
distinguish a type with whitish mesocarp and another with purplish or pinkish mesocarp.
|
||
Further, they recognize a slender variant with a reddish inner skin tissue.^®
|
||
Distribution — Distributed over much of the northern half of South America, including
|
||
Panama and Trinidad.
|
||
182 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
Table 2
|
||
AMINO ACID ANALYSIS OF J E S S E N IA B A T A U A
|
||
Mg amino acid per g protein Amino acid Per cent of FAOAVHO
|
||
Amino acid component (mean ± standard deviation)* scoring pattern*’ scoring pattern
|
||
Isoleucine 47 ± 4 40 118
|
||
Leucine 78 ± 4 70 111
|
||
Lysine 53 ± 3 55 96
|
||
Methionine 18 ± 6
|
||
Cystine 26 ± 6
|
||
Methionine ± cystine 44 ± 9 35 126
|
||
62 ± 3
|
||
Phenylalanine
|
||
Tyrosine 43 ± 5
|
||
105 ± 7 60 175
|
||
Phenylalanine -f tyrosine
|
||
69 ± 6 40 173
|
||
Threonine
|
||
68 ± 4 50 136
|
||
Valine
|
||
Tryptophan 9 ± 1 10 90
|
||
Aspartic acid 122
|
||
Serine 54
|
||
Glutamic acid 96
|
||
Proline 75
|
||
Glycine 69 ± 4
|
||
Alanine 58 ± 4
|
||
Histidine 29 ± 4
|
||
Arginine 56 ± 2
|
||
“ Values represent mean ± standard deviation for 7 separate samples with the exception of tryptophan, for
|
||
which only 3 samples were analyzed.
|
||
^ FAO/WHO provisional amino acid scoring pattern. The scoring pattern represents an “ ideal protein’’ con
|
||
taining all the essential amino acids to meet requirements without excess (FAO/WHO, 1973).
|
||
From Balick, M. and Gershoff, S. N ., Econ. Bot., 35, 261, 1981. Copyright 1981, The New York Botanical
|
||
Garden. With permission.
|
||
Table 3
|
||
COMPARISON OF “MILK’’ O F J E S S E N IA B A T A U A AND
|
||
OTHER MILKS
|
||
Approx. % calories from each component
|
||
Jessenia bataua
|
||
milk Human milk* Cow milk* Soybean milk*
|
||
Fat 55.3 45.9 49.8 37.6
|
||
Protein l A 5.6 20.9 37.9
|
||
Carbohydrate 37.3 48.5 29.3 24.5
|
||
* USDA, 1963.
|
||
From Balick, M. J. and Gershoff, S. N ., Econ. Bot., 35, 261, 1981. Copyright 1981,
|
||
The New York Botanical Garden. With permission.
|
||
Ecology — Estimated to range from Tropical Dry (along river courses) to Rain through
|
||
Subtropical Dry to Rain Forest Life Zones, the mil pesos is estimated to tolerate annual
|
||
precipitation of 15 to 100 dm, annual temperature of 21 to 27°C, and pH of 4.5 to 7.5.
|
||
Once said to have formed solid gallery forests, but also occurring in inland forest up to
|
||
1,000 m.
|
||
183
|
||
Cultivation — Though not normally cultivated, this palm should be given priority in
|
||
testing for plantation culture. “ It has never been cultivated, the minute amounts of oil that
|
||
have entered local native markets always having been extracted from wild tre e s .S e e d s
|
||
apparently take 20 to 40 days to germinate.
|
||
Harvesting — Trees may not fruit for 10 to 12 years.^^^ Fruits ripen from April to
|
||
November in Colombia, September to January in Brazil. Natives believed it bears heavier
|
||
in alternate years like so many of our native fruits.Too often the trees are felled to obtain
|
||
the fruits. But about two months after felling, the Guajibo also harvest the edible grubs of
|
||
the palm weevil.^^’^®
|
||
Yields and economics — Trees average 14 kg fruit per season.Schultes^^® says the
|
||
fruit clusters may weigh 30 kg yielding 1.5 to 3 kg oil. The high price of the similar olive
|
||
oil would suggest introducing this palm into cultivation. An effort towards this end has
|
||
been initiated by the Centro de Dasarollo Las Gaviotas in the Orinoquia of Colombia.
|
||
PIRB256 calculates that the oil can be produced for about $0.20/kg, 1/8 the cost of olive oil.
|
||
Many Latin Americans, nonetheless, import edible oils. Unfortunately, most of the Brazilian
|
||
stands are remote from Belem where there are large vegetable oil factories. “ The low yield
|
||
of oil, coupled with a lack of machinery adapted to processing this fruit, have resulted in
|
||
very limited production.
|
||
Energy — “lam not terribly optimistic on Jessenia as an oilseed fuel, as the oil is simply
|
||
too valuable to bum. In the world market, it (is) probably four times the price of palm oil,
|
||
and thus would be a waste to put in engines.Still, the Colombian natives extract 3 to 4
|
||
bottles of oil from a raceme.
|
||
Biotic factors — No data available.
|
||
184 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
JU G LAN S AILANTHIFOLIA Carr. (JUGLANDACEAE) — Heartnut, Japanese or Siebold
|
||
Walnut
|
||
Syn.: Juglans sieboldiana Maxim., Juglans mirabunda Koidz., Juglans lavallei Dode,
|
||
Juglans sachalinensis (Miyabe et Kudo) Komar., Juglans allardiana Dode,
|
||
Juglans coarctata Dode
|
||
Uses — Heartnut is grown primarily for the kernels of the nuts, used in confectioneries
|
||
and pastries. Wood soft, not strong, of little value as lumber.^^® Wood dark-brown, not
|
||
easily cracked or warped, used for gunstocks, cabinet work, and various utensils in Japan.
|
||
Bark and exocarp of fruit used for dying.Good shade tree and often planted as an
|
||
ornamental.
|
||
Folk medicine — Reported to be antitussive and tonic.
|
||
Chemistry — Not data available.
|
||
Description — Tall erect tree, to 20 m tall, often grown as a low, wide-branching tree;
|
||
branches grayish-brown, densely glandular-pubescent when young; bark whitish. Leaves
|
||
large, petiolate, with 9 to 21 leaflets; leaflets ovate-oblong, 8 to 12 cm long, 3 to 4 cm
|
||
wide, abruptly acute to acuminate, appressed-serrulate, minutely stellate-pubescent above
|
||
on both surfaces when young, sessile and obliquely truncate at base; petioles and rachis
|
||
densely glandular. Staminate aments 10 to 30 cm long; pistillate aments 10- to 20-flowered,
|
||
pedunculate, densely brown pubescent with crisped hairs. Nut pubescent, with hard shell,
|
||
broadly ovoid to nearly globose, 2.5 to 3.5 cm long, mucronate, rugose, with raised sutures.
|
||
Very variable. Flowers May; fruits summer to fall.^^^
|
||
Germplasm — Reported from the China-Japan Center of Diversity.Nuts vary consid
|
||
erably in size and roughness. Best-known varieties of common Siebold walnut are ‘DardinelT
|
||
and ‘English’. Heartnut {Juglans ailanthifolia var. cordiform is [Maxim.] Rehd. [Syn.: J.
|
||
cordiform is Maxim; J. su bcordiform is Dode]) has a cordate or cordate-ovoid, rather de
|
||
pressed shell, with relatively thin shell, is nearly smooth with a shallow groove on each
|
||
side, and has better shelling quality. ‘Fodermaier’ and ‘Wright’ are the best cvs, although
|
||
a great many selections have been made and named. Most named heartnuts were introduced
|
||
to the U.S. in the 1920s and 1930s. This cv is extensively cultivated in Japan and the U.S.
|
||
Hybrids with butternuts (Butterjap or buttemut-siebold) resemble the Siebold in branching,
|
||
leaves, and long racemes of nuts, but resemble the butternut in shape of nut, tree hardiness,
|
||
and resistance to serious diseases. Leaves larger than in the butternut. In breeding, its high
|
||
resistance to M elanconis fungus is transmitted to its hybrids with butternuts. The small size
|
||
of the nut has led to selections of clones. Siebold walnut is susceptible to butternut curculio
|
||
and to witches’ broom or bunch disease, the cause of which is unknown, but an insect-
|
||
transmitted virus is suspected. Hybrid ‘Grietz’ is better adapted to southern localities than
|
||
butternut; and ‘Helmick’ is hardier and very promising. Some cvs are not hardy as far north
|
||
as New York. Juglans aveliana Dode and J. notha Rehd. are alleged hybrids between J.
|
||
ailanthifolia Carr, and J. regia var. orientis (Dode) Kitam.^^® A number of cvs and hybrids
|
||
of heartnut have been developed which should prove useful for cross-breeding. Vigorous
|
||
hybrids, called “ buartnuts” have been produced by crossing heartnuts and butternuts. These
|
||
hybrids combine the butternut’s desirable kernel flavor and superior climatic adaptability
|
||
with the heartnut’s higher yield and better crackability.^®^ (2n = 32.)
|
||
Distribution — Native to Japan. Introduced to San Jose Valley of California about 1870;
|
||
now grown more extensively in northeastern U.S. and southern Ontario. Not worth planting
|
||
in pecan country, and not valued where Persian walnuts (7. regia) thrive. Unadapted to
|
||
extreme temperatures on Northern Plains and Rocky Mountain regions.
|
||
Ecology — Ranging from Warm Temperate Dry to Moist Forest Life Zones, heartnut is
|
||
reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 5.4 to 12.0 dm (mean of 4 cases = 8.3), annual
|
||
temperature of 14.7 to 25.0°C (mean of 4 cases = 18.1), and pH of 5.5 to 6.8 (mean of
|
||
185
|
||
3 cases = 6.4).*^ Thrives on wide range of soils from clay to sand, and even makes rapid
|
||
and luxuriant growth on rather poor soil.^^^ Very common along streams and on wettish
|
||
plains.Bears early, and endures temperatures to — 40°C. However, it is more successfully
|
||
grown in areas from Nova Scotia, through Wisconsin and Iowa to southern Oregon and
|
||
British Columbia and south to Virginia, New Mexico, and northern Arizona.Able to
|
||
withstand winters not too cold for peaches. Grown throughout Atlantic coastal states. Pacific
|
||
northwest, and more protected northern areas.Foliage is sometimes injured and season’s
|
||
crop destroyed by late spring frosts.
|
||
C ultivation — Propagation by grafting, methods being the same as for butternut and
|
||
black walnut. Siebold grafts easily on its own seedlings and on butternut (7. cinered). It
|
||
also grafts easily on black walnut, but does not outgrow the stock. Also propagated by
|
||
layering, by bending low-growing branches to the ground and burying about 10 cm, leaving
|
||
remainder of branch protruding upright. Limb is cut half through on underside close to
|
||
trunk, firmly bound with cord to form a girdle, and treated with tree dressing. Bent-down
|
||
limb should be shaded from trunk to ground to prevent sunscald. Layers require about 2
|
||
years to root. Grafted trees or rooted limbs are planted in the orchard about same distances
|
||
as other walnuts, about 20 m each way.^^*
|
||
H arvestin g — Fruits are borne in long racemes and in good locations, trees produce
|
||
prolifically. Nuts fall to ground in late summer and early fall, and should be harvested by
|
||
picking up the nuts as soon as they fall, to discourage infestation by maggots. Hulls are
|
||
removed and nuts dried for a few days, and then stored as for other walnuts.
|
||
Y ields and econ om ics — Heartnuts yield from 106 to 275 nuts per kg, and crack out
|
||
about one-fourth to one-third kg in kernels.Grown on a noncommercial basis in north
|
||
eastern U.S. and lower Ontario.
|
||
E n ergy — All walnuts are oilseeds, producing good timber, but their value is greater for
|
||
ends other than energetic ends. Yielding better than butternut, this might conceivably be a
|
||
better energy species.
|
||
B iotic factors — In some parts of New York State, a beetle burrows in the terminal
|
||
shoot. Because of Siebold walnut and heartnut’s high resistance to M elanconis fungus, it is
|
||
used for hybridizing with butternut, to which it transmits its resistance.Nearly decimated
|
||
in the U.S. in the early 20th century by walnut bunch disease.The A griculture H andbook
|
||
165"^ reports the following as affecting heartnut: M elanconis ju glan dis (canker, dieback),
|
||
M eloidogyne spp. (root knot nematodes), X anthom onas ju glan dis (bacterial blight). Also
|
||
listed are brooming disease (virus), rosette (physiogenic, (?) zinc deficiency), and witches’
|
||
broom (cause unknown).
|
||
186 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
JU G LA N S CINEREA L. (JUGLANDACEAE) — Butternut, White Walnut, Oil Nut
|
||
Uses — Butternut grown primarily for its nuts, used fresh, roasted, or salted, in confec
|
||
tioneries, pastries, and for flavoring. Sugar may be made from the sap. Green husks of fruit
|
||
are used to dye cloth, giving it a yellow-to-orange color.Bark used by pioneers to make
|
||
a brown dye.^^ Narragansett Indians called the butternut ‘wussoquat’ and used the nuts to
|
||
thicken their pottage.Amerindians ate butternuts raw, cooked, or ground into a meal for
|
||
baking in cakes. Iroquois used seed oil for cooking and as a hair dressing. Nuts were
|
||
combined with maple sugar in New England to make maple-butternut candy.The early
|
||
settlers in New England found they could store the nuts for years as insurance against
|
||
starvation. The wood is coarse-grained, light-brown, turning darker upon exposure, used
|
||
for boat construction, boxes, buildings that come into contact with the ground, cabinet work,
|
||
carving, crates, fence posts, furniture, interior finishing of houses, and mill work. Used to
|
||
make some propellers for early windmills.
|
||
Folk medicine — According to Hartwell,pills made from the bark and poultices made
|
||
from the shucks are said to be folk remedies for cancer. Reported to be alterative, cathartic,
|
||
laxative, stimulant, tonic, and vermifuge, butternut is a folk remedy for cancer, dysentery,
|
||
epithelioma, liver ailments, mycosis, tapeworms, tumors, and warts.Butternut bark (the
|
||
inner bark of the root) is used for fevers and as a mild cathartic.Grieve**^ reports the
|
||
inner bark of the root, collected in May or June, is the best for medicinal use. Has been
|
||
recommended for syphilis and old ulcers; said to be rubefacient when applied to the skin.
|
||
Chemistry — Per 100 g, the seed (ZMB) is reported to contain 654 calories, 24.6 g
|
||
protein, 63.6 g fat, 8.7 g total carbohydrate, 3.0 g ash, and 7.1 mg Fe.^^ Smith^*® reports
|
||
the butternut to be 86.40% refuse, 4.5% water, 27.9% protein, 61.2% fat, 3.4% total
|
||
carbohydrates, 3.0% ash, and 3,370 calories per pound. Butternut bark (the inner bark of
|
||
the root) contains resinoid juglandin, juglone, juglandic acid, and an essential oil.^^® Roots
|
||
give off a toxin that poisons many other plants in the root area.^^^
|
||
Description — Tree to 35 m, with straight trunk 0.6 to 1 m in diameter, round-topped;
|
||
bark smooth, light-gray on young branches, becoming light-brown and deeply fissured, to
|
||
2.5 cm thick; winter-buds terminal, 1.3 to 2 cm long, flattened, outer scales covered with
|
||
pale pubescence; axillary buds dark-brown with rusty pubescence, ovoid, flattened, rounded
|
||
at apex, 0.3 cm long. Leaves 35 to 75 cm long, with stout pubescent petioles, compound
|
||
with 11 to 17 oblong-lanceolate leaflets, 5 to 7.5 cm long, to 5 cm wide, finely serrate,
|
||
glandular, sticky, yellow-green and rough above, pale pubescent beneath; leaves turning
|
||
yellow or brown before falling in fall; hairy fringe present above leaf-scars. Flowers dioe
|
||
cious, staminate flowers in thick aments to 1.2 to 5 cm long, calyx 6-lobed, light-yellow
|
||
to green, puberulent on outer surface; bract rusty-pubescent, acute at apex, stamens 8 to 12
|
||
with nearly sessile dark-brown anthers, slightly lobed connectives; pistillate flowers in 6-
|
||
to 8-flowered spikes, constricted above the middle, coated with sticky glandular hairs,
|
||
stigmas red, about 1.3 cm long. Fruits in drooping clusters of 3 to 5, obscurely 2- or 4-
|
||
ridged, ovoid-oblong, covered with rusty, clammy hairs, 3 to 6 cm long with thick husk;
|
||
nut elongated, ovoid, deeply ridged with 4 prominent and 4 less-prominent ribs, light-brown,
|
||
2-celled at base, 1-celled above the middle; kernel white to cream, sweet, very oily, soon
|
||
becoming rancid. Flowers April to June; fruits fall.^^^
|
||
Germplasm — Reported from the North America Center of Diversity, butternut, or cvs
|
||
thereof, is reported to tolerate bacteria, fungus, limestone, poor soil, slope, and weeds.
|
||
Cvs have been selected with excellent shelling qualities, some of them now being grown
|
||
are ‘Kenworthy’, ‘Kinneyglen’, ‘Buckley’, ‘Helmick’, ‘Craxezy’, ‘Henick’, ‘Johnson’,
|
||
‘Sherwood’, ‘Thrill’, and ‘Van der Poppen’. x ju glan s quadrangulata Rehd., a natural
|
||
hybrid between7. cinerea and7. regia, occurs occasionally in eastern Massachusetts. Hybrids
|
||
between butternut (7. cinerea) and heartnut (7. ailanthifolia) have appeared in the U.S.^^^
|
||
187
|
||
‘Aiken’ was the first grafted butternut available.Grafted cv ‘Deeming’ reported to bear
|
||
“ when it is two feet high’’.^*° (2n = 32.)
|
||
Distribution — Native to eastern North America, from southern New Brunswick to
|
||
Ontario, Michigan, southern Minnesota, and South Dakota, south to eastern Virginia, central
|
||
Kansas, and northern Arkansas, and in the mountains to northern Georgia, Alabama, and
|
||
western Tennessee. Occasionally cultivated elsewhere. Most abundant northward.
|
||
Ecology — Ranging from Cool Temperate Moist to Wet through Warm Temperate Dry
|
||
Forest Life Zones, butternut is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 5.4 to 12.3 dm
|
||
(mean of 8 cases = 8.6), annual temperature of 8.4 to 18.0°C (mean of 8 cases = 12.1°C),
|
||
and pH of 4.9 to 7.2 (mean of 7 cases = 6.2).®^ Thrives in rich, moist soils near banks of
|
||
streams, on low rocky hills, as well as in forests, along fences, and road-sides. However,
|
||
it cannot be depended upon as an ornamental planting. Succeeds fairly well on poor upland
|
||
soils, but thrives best on fertile, slightly acid or neutral soils with good drainage. Hardiest
|
||
of any of the northern nuts, but short-lived under some conditions, apparently due to fungus
|
||
disease.Hardy to Zone 3.^"^^
|
||
Cultivation — Trees in the forest and along road-sides develop from natural dispersal of
|
||
nuts. When cultivated, nuts or small trees can be planted. To assure viability, seeds should
|
||
not be more than a few years old. Plant where tree is to grow, in spring or fall, burying
|
||
about 2.5 cm in the ground. Fall-planted nuts should be well protected from nut-hunting
|
||
squirrels. Spring-planted nuts should be planted as early as possible, so they can be frozen
|
||
in the ground a few times. Nuts may be stored in freezer a few days before planting to
|
||
insure sprouting. Mid-summer sprouting seedlings grow rapidly, possibly reaching 1 m by
|
||
summer’s end. Plant 10 to 12 m apart for nut production; 5 m apart for timber production.
|
||
Generally takes 10 years from planting to first harvest; the first crop should be a big one.'^^
|
||
Trees are usually grafted either on seedling butternut or black walnut stocks. Black walnut
|
||
stocks are reported to give earlier bearing trees. Butternut is a rather rapid-growing tree;
|
||
however, it begins to deteriorate when it reaches medium size. Trunks of older trees are
|
||
usually hollow. Otherwise, it requires about the same care and cultivation as other nut
|
||
trees.Ashworth^® reports that it is difficult to graft, possibly due to high sap pressure and
|
||
abundant sap flow in the spring.
|
||
Harvesting — Nuts are harvested by picking them up from the ground after they have
|
||
fallen in early to late fall. Husk is removed and nuts are allowed to dry for a few weeks by
|
||
spreading them one deep on a warm attic floor, a greenhouse bench, a sunny garage floor,
|
||
etc. Should be stirred up occasionally so they dry thoroughly. Store in a well-ventilated,
|
||
dry, cool, squirrel-proof place. Kernels are removed by cracking nuts. A hammer and anvil
|
||
or a block of hard wood seems to be the best cracking method. Another method is to cover
|
||
the nuts with hot water and soak them until the water cools. They will crack easily and
|
||
meats come out intact. Kernels may be stored dried, salted, or frozen until used.^^®
|
||
Yields and economics — Yield data for this species are usually included with other native
|
||
and cultivated walnuts. Kernels of butternut are harvested along with other walnuts and sold
|
||
salted or variously packaged.Two billion board feet of butternut lumber was reported to
|
||
be cut in 1 year in 1913. Production in 1941 was ca. 920,000 board feet. West Virginia,
|
||
Wisconsin, Indiana, and Tennessee have been the leading states in production of butternut
|
||
lumber. West Virginia mills shipped ca. 250,000 board feet to North Carolina furniture
|
||
plants in 1963. In 1960, the total veneer production was ca. 4 billion square feet; in 1965,
|
||
ca. 14 billion square feet face veneer was shipped. Butternuts are less important commercially
|
||
than black walnuts.
|
||
Energy — Both timber and seed oils could be used for energy, but they are, at the
|
||
moment, probably more suitable for other ends. This species is said to yield less than J.
|
||
ailanthifolia.
|
||
Biotic factors — The following fungi are known to attack butternut: Actinothecium
|
||
188 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
juglandis, Botryosphaeria ribis, Cercospora juglandis, Cylindrosporium sp., Fusarium av-
|
||
enaceum, Gnomonia leptostyla, Marsonia juglandis, Melanconis juglandis, Microstroma
|
||
brachysporum, M. juglandis, and Nectria galligena. Trees are attacked by Witches’ broom,
|
||
the cause of which is unknown. The nematodes Caconema radicicola and Meloidogyne sp.
|
||
have also been isolated from the tree.*^^’^^*
|
||
189
|
||
JUG LAN S HINDSII Jeps. ex R.E.Sm. (JUGLANDACEAE) — California or Hind’s Black
|
||
Walnut
|
||
Syn.: J u g la n s californ ica var. h in d sii Jeps.
|
||
Uses — Kernels of nuts edible, of good quality, but small, used for confectioneries,
|
||
pastries, and roasted or salted nuts. Wood hard, coarse-grained, dark-brown, often mottled,
|
||
with pale thick sap wood. Often cultivated in California as street and shade tree.^"^^
|
||
Folk medicine — No data available.
|
||
Chemistry — No data available.
|
||
Description — Deciduous, round-topped tree 10 to 20 m tall, occasionally to 25 m, with
|
||
erect, unbranched trunk 3.3 to 13 m, 30 to 60 cm in diameter; bark strong-scented, gray-
|
||
brown, smoothish, longitudinally fissured into narrow plates; branches pendulous; branchlets
|
||
villose-pubescent, reddish-brown, lenticels pale. Leaves 22 to 30 cm long, alternate, com
|
||
pound; petioles and rachis villose-pubescent; leaflets 15 to 19, thin, 6 to 10 cm long, 2 to
|
||
2.5 cm wide, ovate-lanceolate to lanceolate, long-pointed, often slightly flacate, margin
|
||
serrate, base rounded cuneate to cordate, upper surface puberulous while young, becoming
|
||
bright-green and glabrous, lower surface with tufts of hairs and villose-pubescent along
|
||
midrib and primary veins. Staminate flowers in slender glabrous or villose aments 7.5 to
|
||
12.6 cm long, calyx elongated, covered with pubescence, 5- or 6-lobed, stamens 30 to 40,
|
||
with short connectives bifid at apex; pistillate flowers oblong-ovoid, thickly covered with
|
||
villose-pubescence about 0.3 cm long. Fruit globose, 3 to 5 cm in diameter, husk thin, dark-
|
||
colored with soft pubescence; nut nearly globose, somewhat flattened at ends, faintly grooved
|
||
with remote longitudinal depressions, shell thick; seed small and sweet.
|
||
Germplasm — Reported from the North American Center of Diversity, Hind’s black
|
||
walnut, or cvs thereof, is reported to tolerate high pH.^^ In California, natural hybrids are
|
||
known between this walnut and Juglans nigra; also a hybrid ‘Paradoxa’ (J. hindsii x J.
|
||
regia) has been produced artificially. J. hindsii var. quercina Sarg. (7. c a lif ornica (var.)
|
||
quercina Babcock) has leaves with 1 to 5 leaflets, usually 3, short-stalked or sessile, broadly
|
||
ovate to oblong, obtuse or emarginate, serrate or entire, 1.3 to 5 cm long. (2n = 24.)^^^
|
||
Distribution — Native to Coastal region of central California. Sometimes cultivated in
|
||
California, eastern U.S., and Europe.
|
||
Ecology — Ranging from Warm Temperate Thom to Dry Forest Life Zones, Hind’s black
|
||
walnut is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 3.1 to 6.6 dm (mean of 2 cases =
|
||
4.9), annual temperature of 12.7 to 14.7°C (mean of 2 cases = 13.7), and pH of 6.8 to
|
||
8.2 (mean of 2 cases = 7^).^^ In natural habitats, trees are found along streams and rivers.
|
||
Trees not suitable for lawn-planting because rootstock is very susceptible to crown rot
|
||
(Phytophthora cactorum ), especially if given frequent summer irrigation.
|
||
Cultivation — Trees used as stock for Persian walnut (7. regia), top-worked high to
|
||
provide butt logs for walnut timber.
|
||
Harvesting — Fruit gathered when ripe in fall. Treated like other walnuts.
|
||
Yields and economics — Valued mostly as a shade or street tree in California, and as
|
||
stock on which to graft varieties of Persian walnut (7. regia). Butt logs 45 cm in diameter
|
||
bring about $200 each.^^®
|
||
Energy — Endangered or threatened species are not recommended as energy species.
|
||
However, if abundant in cultivation, this species could serve as a high-priced oilseed and
|
||
firewood, though the fmit and timber could find better uses.
|
||
Biotic Factors — Trees are resistant to oak root fungus, but particularly susceptible to
|
||
crown rot {P hytophthora cactorum ). The following are also reported as affecting this species:
|
||
C acopaurus epacris, C ylindrosporium ju g la n d is (leaf spot). M icrostrom a ju glan dis, Xan-
|
||
thom onas ju glan dis (bacterial blight). Also reported are Black-line (girdle-graft incompat
|
||
ibility) and Little leaf (zinc deficiency)."^
|
||
190 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
JUGLANS NIGRA L. (JUGLANDACEAE) — Eastern Black Walnut
|
||
Uses — Black walnut is one of most valuable natural forest trees in the U.S. The nuts
|
||
furnish a food product, used mainly for flavoring baked goods, pastries, and confectioneries.
|
||
The wood has good texture, strength, and is coarse-grained, very durable, of a rich dark-
|
||
brown color with light sapwood; used in cabinet-making, gun-stocks, interior finishes of
|
||
houses, furniture, air-planes, ship-building. Wood is also easy to work, resistant to destruc
|
||
tive fungi and insect pests. Woody shells on fruits are used to make jewelry. Green fruit
|
||
husks are boiled to provide a yellow dye. Trees are used for shade and ornamentals.
|
||
Folk medicine — The bark and leaves are considered alterative, astringent, detergent,
|
||
laxative, and purgative. They are used for eczema, herpes, indolent ulcers, scrofula. The
|
||
unripe fruit is sudorific and vermifugal, and used for ague and quinsy, and is rubbed onto
|
||
cracked palms and ringworm. Oil from the ripe seeds is used externally for gangrene, leprosy,
|
||
and wounds. Burnt kernels, taken in red wine, are said to prevent falling hair. Green husks
|
||
are supposed to ease the pain of toothache. Indians used the root bark as a vermifuge.
|
||
Macerated in warm water, the husks and/or leaves, are said to destroy insects and worms,
|
||
without destroying the grass. Insects are said to avoid the walnut; hence it is often used as
|
||
a poor man’s insect repellent. Rubbed on faces of cattle and horses, walnut leaves are said
|
||
to repel flies. The roots and/or leaves exude substances which are known to inhibit ger
|
||
mination and/or growth of many plant species. All parts of the plant contain juglone, which
|
||
inhibits other plant species. Juglone has antihemorrhagic activity.
|
||
191
|
||
Chemistry — The genus Juglans is reported to contain the following toxins: folic acid,
|
||
furfural, inositol, juglone, nicotine, and tryptophane.^^ Juglone has an oral LD50 of 2500
|
||
|xg in mice. Chloroform is said to constitute a large part of the essential oil of the leaves.
|
||
Per 100 g, black walnut contains 3.1% water, 628 calories, 20.5 g protein, 59.3 g fat, 14.8
|
||
g total carbohydrate (1.7 g fiber), 2.3 g ash, a trace of Ca, 570 mg P, 6 mg Fe, 3 mg Na,
|
||
460 mg K, 3(X) lU Vitamin A, 0.22 mg thiamine, 0.11 mg riboflavin, and 0.7 mg niacin.
|
||
Description — Tree up to 33 m tall, occasionally to 50 m, and often 100 years old; trunk
|
||
straight, often unbranched for 20 m, 1.3 to 2 m in diameter; branches forming a round-
|
||
topped crown, mostly upright and rigid; branchlets covered at first with pale or rusty matted
|
||
hairs, and raised conspicuous orange lenticels; bark 5 to 7.5 cm thick, dark-brown tinged
|
||
red, deeply furrowed with broad rounded ridges; twigs light-brown with channeled pith;
|
||
terminal bud as broad as long; no hairy fringe above leaf-scar; leaves compound, deciduous,
|
||
30 to 60 cm long, petioles pubescent, with 13 to 23 leaflets; leaflets 7.5 to 8 cm long, 2.5
|
||
to 3 cm wide, long-pointed, sharply serrate, slightly rounded at base, yellow-green, thin,
|
||
glabrous above, soft-pubescent beneath, turning bright-yellow in fall before falling; staminate
|
||
aments thick, 7.5 to 12.5 cm long, compact, not-stalked, single; calyx 6-lobed, lobes
|
||
concave, nearly orbicular, pubescent on outer surface, its bract nearly triangular with rusty
|
||
brown tomentum; stamens 20 to 30, in many series, connectives purple, truncate, nearly
|
||
sessile; pistillate aments in 2 to 5-flowered spikes, bracts with pale glandular hairs, green,
|
||
puberulous, calyx-lobes ovate, acute, puberulent on outer surface, glabrous or pilose within;
|
||
fruit solitary or in pairs, globose, oblong or pointed at apex; husk yellow-green or green,
|
||
smooth or roughened with clusters of short pale articulate hairs, 3 to 5 cm in diameter,
|
||
indéhiscent; nut oval, oblong or round, rough or sculptured, 3 to 3.5 cm in diameter, dark-
|
||
brown tinged red, 4-celled at base, slightly 2-celled at apex; kernel sweet, soon becoming
|
||
rancid. (2n = 32.) Flowers April to May; fruits at frost in fall.®^’^^^
|
||
Germplasm — At present, nearly 100 varieties of black walnuts have been selected and
|
||
named. Many can be propagated to order, or scions may be obtained for grafting upon
|
||
established stocks. Varieties or cultivars differ in hardiness, response to length of growing
|
||
season, summer heat, resistance to diseases and susceptibility to insect damage. ‘Thomas’
|
||
is the most cultivated variety in New York; ‘Synder’ and ‘Cornell’ have good cracking
|
||
quality for northern areas; ‘Wiard’, for Michigan; ‘Huber’ and ‘Cochrane’, for Minnesota;
|
||
‘Sparrow’, ‘Stambaugh’, and ‘Elmer Myers’ are all good in parts of the South; ‘Ohio’ and
|
||
‘Myers’ are good in north central areas. Natural hybrid, x Juglans intermedia Carr (7.
|
||
nigra x J. regia) has been recorded in the U.S. and Europe. In California, ‘Royal’ (7.
|
||
nigra X 7. hindsii) has been artificially produced. Reported from the North American Center
|
||
of Diversity, walnut is reported to be relatively tolerant to disease, drought, fire, frost,
|
||
fungi, high pH, heat, insects, limestone, slopes, smog, and weeds.
|
||
Distribution — Grows naturally in 32 states and in southern Ontario, Canada; most
|
||
abundant in Allegheny Mountains to North Carolina and Tennessee. Occasionally cultivated
|
||
as an ornamental in eastern U.S., western and central Europe. Planted in Europe for timber.
|
||
Ecology — Wind pollinated, walnut may play a small role in hay fever. Suited to rich
|
||
bottomlands and fertile hillsides from lower Hudson Valley southward, walnut will grow a
|
||
few hundred miles outside its natural range, but may not bear nuts. Seedling trees mature
|
||
fruit rather generally throughout area with a growing season of about 150 days and an average
|
||
summer temperature of 16.5°C. Best suited to deep, rich, slightly acid or neutral soil, with
|
||
good drainage, but will not succeed on infertile upland soil or on soils with poor drainage.
|
||
Reliable indicators for suitable land are good stands of white oak and tulip popular, or where
|
||
com grows well. Because trees have a deep tap-root, they are drought-resistant. Black walnut
|
||
is reported from areas with annual precipitation from 3 to 13 dm (mean of 19 cases = 9),
|
||
annual temperature from 7 to 19°C (mean of 19 cases = 11), and pH from 4.9 to 8.2 (mean
|
||
of 15 cases = 6.3).®^’^^®
|
||
192 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
Cultivation — Improved varieties do not come true from seed, hence, propagation is by
|
||
grafting scions (twigs) from trees of desired varieties onto main stems of 2- to 3-year old
|
||
native seedlings. Scions develop crowns that bear nuts of their own variety. As there is little
|
||
information available to indicate the best varieties for different localities, local nurseries
|
||
should be consulted as to the best for a given locality. Trees are self-fertile, but the sequence
|
||
of male and female blooming, called dichogamy, can and often does minimize chances of
|
||
a tree shedding pollen on its own pistils. In different trees pollen may be shed before the
|
||
receptivity period of female flowers, or at same time, or after pistil receptivity. For greatest
|
||
possible nut production, plant trees of 2 or more varieties, as different varieties have over
|
||
lapping pollen-receptivity periods and can pollinate each other. Young plants are best trans
|
||
planted in early spring, at which time new roots will grow rapidly to replace those lost in
|
||
transplanting. In the South, young trees may be planted in fall or winter. For nut production,
|
||
trees are spaced 20 m apart. For trees up to 2.3 m tall, dig hole 0.6 m deep and 1 m wide.
|
||
Place tree at same depth in hole as it stood in nursery and spread out roots well. Fill hole
|
||
with topsoil and firm down soil. Form a basin around edge of hole and soak soil immediately.
|
||
Black walnuts require large quantities of nitrogen and phosphorus. Apply mixed fertilizer
|
||
(5-10-5 or 10-10-10) each year under tree branches when buds begin to swell in early spring.
|
||
Use rates of 450 g/year of 5-10-5 fertilizer, or 230 g/year for 10-10-10, per tree. Do not
|
||
use during first year, because of danger of injuring roots. In strongly acid soils, apply lime
|
||
to change pH to 6 or 6.5. Do not over-lime, as this makes zinc in soil unavailable to tree.
|
||
Soils east of Mississippi River are often deficient in magnesium, so crushed dolomite
|
||
limestone is used to correct this condition and reduce acidity of soil. Prune any suckers that
|
||
come from below graft on trunk. In orchards, trees over 15 years old may be interseeded
|
||
with grasses and legumes, and animals may be turned in to pasture, as they will not damage
|
||
older trees. All black walnuts tend to bear heavy nut crops every second year. No cultural
|
||
practices have been developed to offset this type of alternating. Some trees bear every year,
|
||
while others bear every third year. Others mainly react to climatic conditions with no pattern.
|
||
In the U.S. growing seasons are divided into 3 zones: North of Mason-Dixon Line, 140 to
|
||
180 days; south to North Carolina, northern Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, Arkansas, and
|
||
Oklahoma, 180 to 200 days; south of that, 220 to 260 days. Varieties are selected for each
|
||
area. When trees bearing fruits of exceptional quality are found, they are propagated and
|
||
cultivated for nut production in that area.^^^
|
||
Harvesting — Nuts are harvested from native trees as well as from improved selections
|
||
and cultivars. Fruit ripens in one season, usually by late September or early October. Most
|
||
production is from wild trees growing on non-crop land, and these represent the main
|
||
commercial source of kernels for today’s market. Nuts should be harvested as soon as they
|
||
fall, in order to get light-colored kernels with mild flavor. Leaving them on ground causes
|
||
some discoloration of kernel. Hulls of native trees are thick and heavy, whereas those of
|
||
Thomas’ and ‘Ohio’ have thinner hull, those of ‘Myers’ being thinnest of all. Hull may be
|
||
mashed and removed by hand, or by mechanical devices. After removing the hulls, nuts
|
||
should be washed thoroughly and spread out to dry in direct sunlight. Drying takes 2 to 3
|
||
weeks; nuts can then be stored in a cool, dry place until needed. Nuts are cracked and
|
||
kernels removed for use.^^®
|
||
Yields and economics — Although Duke®^ reported yields of 7.5 MT seeds, this is
|
||
probably highly optimistic. Elsewhere it is said that 95% of the wild black walnut seeds are
|
||
empty or aborted. Perhaps yields could be as high as 2.5 MT/ha under intensive management,
|
||
which is attainable in the commercial walnut, Juglans regia. Selections are made based on
|
||
weight of nuts. Trees may bear at rates of 7,500 seed per ha. Nuts from wild trees weigh
|
||
about 17 g (27 nuts per lb); for selected varieties, weights vary from 15 to 30 g; those 20
|
||
g or over are: ‘Michigan’ (20); ‘Grundy’, ‘Monterey’, ‘Schreiber’ and ‘Thomas’ (21);
|
||
‘Victoria’ (22); ‘Hare’ (23); ‘Pinecrest’ (25); and ‘Vandersloot’ (30). ‘Thomas’, ‘Ohio’ and
|
||
193
|
||
‘Myers’ begin bearing nuts in second or third year after planting, while native trees usually
|
||
do not begin to bear until about 10 years after planting. In 5 to 6 years, these three varieties
|
||
bear about one-fourth bushel of nuts; at 15 to 20 years of age, the first two bear 2 bu of
|
||
nuts, ‘Myers’ about 1 bu, and native trees about V4 bu. Lumber trees yield about 1150 board
|
||
feet at 76 years old. Nut shelling industry is centered in and around Arkansas, Kansas,
|
||
Kentucky, Missouri, Oklahoma, Tennessee, West Virginia, and Virginia. Because of the
|
||
scarcity of trees and the long growing period required to get wood, walnut lumber is not in
|
||
great demand as it used to be. More frequently grown in Europe for lumber. Walnuts are
|
||
grown in the U.S. for nuts and ornamentation. In the U.S. the following are said to deal in
|
||
walnut oil: Main Pure Food Company (13660 S. Figueroa, Los Angeles, California) and
|
||
Tunley Division, Welch, Home and Clark Co. (1000 S. 4th Street, Harrison, New Jersey)
|
||
Well-formed trees will yield lumber worth thousands of dollars.
|
||
Energy — Oil contents of the seeds run about 60%, suggesting that if the walnut yields
|
||
of 7.5 MT/ha were attained, there might be as much as 4.5 MT oil there. Hulls and exocarp
|
||
might be used to fuel the processing, as the value of the timber improves with age (one tree
|
||
commanded $35,0(X) at an Ohio auction). Prunings and culls, as well as fallen and dead
|
||
limbs, might about to 5 MT/ha/year.
|
||
B iotic factors — Walnut anthracnose is most serious disease to native trees. ‘Ohio’ is
|
||
resistant to this disease; ‘Myers’ is less resistant. Disease over-winters in fallen leaves and
|
||
reinfects new leaflets in mid-May until mid-June, often defoliating entire trees. Many nuts
|
||
are empty or contain blackened, shriveled kernels. Bunch disease, of which the cause and
|
||
means of spread are unknown, stunts growth of the tree and lowers nut production. The
|
||
most serious insect pests are walnut lace bug, curculios, walnut husk maggot, walnut cat
|
||
erpillar and fall web-worm. Serious damage may also be caused by leaf-eating caterpillars,
|
||
scales, aphids and twig girdlers. County agricultural agents should be consulted for measures
|
||
to control these in a particular area.^^® Nematodes include M eloidogyne sp., P ratylenchus
|
||
cojfeae, P . p ra ten sis, and P. vulnus.^^^ The following are reported in A gricu ltu re H an dbook
|
||
165"^ as affecting Juglans nigra: B otryosph aeria ribis, C ercospora ju g la n d is (leaf spot),
|
||
C ladosporium sp. (? scab), C. pericarpiu m , C ylindrosporium ju g la n d is (leaf spot), C ytospora
|
||
sp. (canker), C. albiceps, P om es igniarius, G nom onia leptostyla (anthracnose, leaf spot,
|
||
leaf blotch), M eloidogyne spp. (root knot nematodes). M icrostrom a ju g la n d is (downy spot,
|
||
white mold), N ectria ditissim a, P h leospora m ultim aculans (leaf spot), P horandendron fla -
|
||
vescens (mistletoe), P hym atotrichum om nivorum (root rot), P hytophthora cinnam om i (collar
|
||
rot of seedlings), P ratylenchus m usicola, R habdospora ju glan dis, Sclerotium rolfsii (seedling
|
||
blight), S phaeropsis druparum , Stereum fa scia tu m , and X anthom onas ju g la n d is (bacterial
|
||
blight)."^
|
||
194 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
JUGLANS REGIA L. (JUGLANDACEAE) — English Walnut, Carpathian or Persian Walnut
|
||
Uses — Principally valued as an orchard tree for commercial nut production. Nuts are
|
||
consumed fresh, roasted, or salted, used in confectioneries, pastries, and for flavoring. The
|
||
shells may be used as antiskid agents for tires, blasting grit, and in the preparation of
|
||
activated carbon. Ground nut shells are used as an adulterant of spices. Crushed leaves, or
|
||
a decoction are used as insect repellant and as a tea. Outer fleshy part of fruit, very rich in
|
||
Vitamin C, produces a yellow dye. Fruit, when dry pressed, yields a valuable oil used in
|
||
paints and in soap-making; when cold pressed yields a light-yellow edible oil used in foods
|
||
as flavoring. Young fruits made into pickles, also used as fish poison. Twigs and leaves
|
||
lopped for fodder in India. Decoction of leaves, bark, and husks used with alum for staining
|
||
wool brown. Wood hard, durable, close-grained, heavy, used for furniture and gun-stocks.
|
||
Tree often grown as ornamental.
|
||
Folk medicine — According to Hartwell,English walnuts are used in folk remedies
|
||
for aegilops, cancer, carbuncles, carcinoma, condylomata acuminata, corns, excrescences,
|
||
growths, indurations, tumors, warts, and whitlows, especially cancerous conditions of the
|
||
breast, epithelium, fauces, groin, gullet, intestine, kidneys, lip, liver, mammae, mouth,
|
||
stomach, throat, and uterus. Reported to be alterative, anodyne, anthelmintic, astringent,
|
||
bactericide, cholagogue, depurative, detergent, digestive, diuretic, hemostat, insecticidal,
|
||
laxative, lithontryptic, stimulant, tonic, and vermifuge, the English walnut is a folk remedy
|
||
for anthrax, asthma, backache, caligo, chancre, colic, conjunctivitis, cough, dysentery,
|
||
eczema, ejaculation, favus, heartburn, impotence, inflammation, intellect, intestine, intox
|
||
ication, kidney, legs, leucorrhea, lungs, rheumatism, scrofula, sore, syphilis, and worms.
|
||
Chemistry — Per 100 g, the seed is reported to contain 647 to 657 calories, 2.5 to 4.2
|
||
g H2O, 13.7 to 18.2 g protein, 63.6 to 67.2 g fat, 12.6 to 15.8 g total carbohydrate, 1.6
|
||
to 2.1 g fiber, 1.7 to 2.0 g ash, 92 to 106 mg Ca, 326 to 380 mg P, 3.0 to 3.3 mg Fe, 2
|
||
to 3 mg Na, 450 to 536 mg K, 0.50 |xg beta-carotene equivalent, 0.27 to 0.50 mg thiamine,
|
||
0.08 to 0.51 mg riboflavin, 0.7 to 3.0 mg niacin, and 0 to 5 mg ascorbic acid. Wealth of
|
||
India^^ also reports, per 100 g, 2.7 mg Na, 687 mg K, 61 mg Ca, 131 mg Mg, 2.4 mg Fe,
|
||
0.3 mg Cu, 510 mg P, 104 mg S, and 23 mg Cl, and 2.8 |jLg I (as well as Ar, Zn, Co, and
|
||
Mn). About 42% of the total phosphorus is in phytic acid; lecithin is also present. The
|
||
immature fruit is one of the richest sources of ascorbic acid, the skin with 1,090 mg/100 g,
|
||
the pulp with 2,330 mg. The leaves, also rich in ascorbic acid (almost 1% of the weight),
|
||
are rich in carotene (ca. 0.3% wet weight). Juglone is the active compound in the leaves;
|
||
also quercetin, cyanadin, kaempferol, caffeic acid, and traces of p-coumaric acid, hyperin
|
||
(0.2%), quercitrin, kaempferol-3-arabinoside, quercetin-3-arabinoside. The seed oil contains
|
||
3 to 7% palmitic, 0.5 to 3% stearic, 9 to 30% oleic, 57 to 76% linoleic, and 2 to 16%
|
||
linolenic acids. The oil cake, with 86.6% dry matter (DM), contains 35.0% protein, 12.2%
|
||
fatty oil, 27.6% carbohydrates, 6.7% fiber, 5.1% ash (digestible nutrients: 31.5% crude
|
||
protein, 11.6% fatty oil, 23.5% carbohydrates, and 1.7% fiber). The shells contain 92.3%
|
||
DM, 1.7% protein, 0.7% fatty oil, 31.9% carbohydrates, 56.6% fiber, and 1.4% ash.^®’®^ *®^
|
||
Description — Deciduous, monoecious trees, 12 to 15 m tall (Payne vars.), 17 to 20 m
|
||
tall (‘Eureka’, ‘Placentia’, ‘Mayette’, ‘Franquette’), or rarely up to 60 m tall; bark brown
|
||
or gray, smooth, fissured; leaf-scars without prominent pubescent band on upper edge.
|
||
Leaves alternate, foetid, pinnate, without stipules; leaflets 15 to 24, opposite, 6 to 15 cm
|
||
long, ovate-oblong to ovate-lanceolate, acuminate; margin irregularly serrate, glabrescent
|
||
above, pubescent and glandular beneath. Flowers developing from dormant bud of previous
|
||
season’s growth; staminate flowers in axillary, pendulous aments 5 to 15 cm long, developing
|
||
1 to 4 million pollen grains each; flowers in axils of scales, with 2 bracteoles, perianth-
|
||
segments 1 to 4, stamens 3 to 40; pistillate flowers in clusters of 3 to 9, developing as many
|
||
nuts; in selected varieties not only terminal bud produces fruit, but all lateral buds on previous
|
||
195
|
||
years growth also produce; perianth 4-lobed. Fruit 3.5 to 5 cm in diameter, globose or
|
||
slightly obovoid, pubescent; nut ovoid, acute, strongly ridged, not splitting.
|
||
G erm p lasm — Reported from the Eurosiberian and Central Asian Centers of Diversity,
|
||
English walnut, or cvs thereof, is reported to tolerate frost, high pH, heat, insects, low pH,
|
||
and slope. (2n = 32,36.)^^ Varieties are selected on basis of high heat tolerance, resistance
|
||
to walnut blight {X anthom onas ju glan dis), tolerance for winter cold, and yield and quality
|
||
of kernels. Most promising cvs are of Carpathian origin and have been introduced from
|
||
Poland; they withstand temperatures below those recorded in the the fruit belt of New York.
|
||
Recent superior cvs include: ‘Broadview’, ‘Schafer’, ‘Littlepage’, ‘McKinster’, ‘Metcalfe’,
|
||
‘Jacobs’, and ‘Colby’. Other varieties widely grown in the world include: ‘Marmot’, ‘Mey-
|
||
lanaise’, ‘Come’, ‘Gourlande’, ‘Mayette’, ‘Brantôme’, ‘Ashley’, ‘Glackner’, ‘Nugget’,
|
||
‘Poe’, ‘Franquette’, ‘Concord’, ‘Ehrhardt’, ‘Payne’, and ‘Waterloo’. Persian walnuts have
|
||
been hybridized with butternuts, black walnuts, and other European and Oriental walnuts.
|
||
Juglans regia var. orientis (Dode) Kitam. J. orientis Dode; J. regia var. sinensis sensu
|
||
auct. Japan (non DC.) is a widely cultivated Chinese tree, with glabrous leaves and bran-
|
||
chlets, leaflets 3 to 9, obtuse, entire, except in young trees, and nuts relatively thin-shelled.
|
||
D istrib u tion — Native to the Carpathian Mountains of eastern Europe, but often found
|
||
growing wild eastward to Himalayas and China. Widely cultivated throughout this region
|
||
and elsewhere in temperate zone of the Old and New World. Thrives in temperate Himalayas
|
||
from 1,000 to 3,000 m altitude. In North America, thrives as far north as New York State.
|
||
Introduced from Spain by way of Chile to California about 1867. In 1873 ‘Kaghazi’ was
|
||
introduced in northern California and a seedling ‘Eureka’ has become the important source
|
||
of our commercial cvs.^^®
|
||
E cology — Ranging from Cool Temperate Steppe to Wet through Subtropical Thom to
|
||
Moist Forest Life Zones, English walnut is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 3.1
|
||
to 14.7 dm (mean of 25 cases = 8.4), annual temperature of 7.0 to 21.1°C (mean of 25
|
||
cases = 12.0), and pH of 4.5 to 8.2 (mean of 21 cases = 6.4). Thrives on rich, sandy
|
||
loam, well-drained, slightly acid or neutral. Responds well to cultivation and fertilization.
|
||
In areas where hardiness is a problem, trees should not be forced into excessive vegetative
|
||
growth. Minimum temperature should not go below - 29°C. One fault of Carpathian walnut
|
||
is that it begins growth early in spring with the result that crop and foliage may be damaged
|
||
by late frosts. When fully dormant, trees can withstand temperatures from — 24°C to — 2 T C
|
||
without serious damage. French cvs may be more winter hardy. ‘Eureka’ is less hardy than
|
||
newer cvs being produced for northern California, Oregon, and higher altitudes. High summer
|
||
temperatures damage kernels, slightly at 38°C, severely at 40.5 to 43.5°C. Quite variable
|
||
resistance to heat among varieties. Reported from areas with pH 4.5 to 8.3, annual rainfall
|
||
3 to 15 dm, and annual temperature 7 to 19°C. Rains in late spring and summer increase
|
||
walnut blight infections.
|
||
C ultivation — Since trees are deep-rooted, soil should be fertile, well-drained, alluvial,
|
||
2 m or more deep, of medium loam to sandy or silt loam texture, and free of alkali salts,
|
||
especially excessive boron. Seedling trees show great variation as to hardiness, type of fruit
|
||
and fruitfulness. ‘Paradox’ hybrids, ‘Royal’ hybrids m d Juglans hindsii are used as rootstocks
|
||
for grafting Persian and Carpathian walnuts. Rootstock of Juglans regia may be used if oak
|
||
root fungus {A rm illaria m ellea) is absent in area. Persian walnuts have been grafted to
|
||
Chinese wingnut (P terocarya stenoptera) Selected varieties are best whip- or bark-grafted
|
||
or patch-budded on seedling trees, or top-worked on existing trees. Persian walnuts are
|
||
planted in the orchard from 10 to 20 m each way; however, many spacings are in use
|
||
depending on cv and cultivation methods. Intercropping young walnuts may be useful for
|
||
the first 5 to 10 years. Intercropping may be difficult because of irrigation, spraying, and
|
||
use of equipment for cultivation of the intercrop. Holes should be dug amply wide to
|
||
accommodate roots, planting no deeper than they were in the nursery. Roots should never
|
||
196 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
be allowed to dry out. Topsoil should be used to fill hole, firmly tamped around roots. Do
|
||
not transplant when soil is wet. Nut trees must have tops reduced or cut back, either before
|
||
or after planting, usually to about 1.5 to 2 m from ground level. Lower buds should be
|
||
suppressed so the upper ones will be forced to grow and make the framework of the tree.
|
||
Newly planted trees should be staked, either with a single stake driven close to the tree and
|
||
tying it to the stake, or driving three stakes equidistant, fastening tree to each with stout
|
||
cord so as not to injure bark. After trees are planted, they should be watched, and watered
|
||
during dry spells until established. When irrigated, a total of 2V2 to 5 acre feet of water per
|
||
acre should be applied throughout the year, including normal rainfall. The modified central
|
||
leader system of training young walnuts is recommended for western orchards, in which 4
|
||
or 5 main framework branches spaced both vertically and horizontally are developed; the
|
||
first branch should be started no lower than 2 m from the ground. The trend is toward
|
||
heavier and more consistent pruning both in young and old trees; very fruitful new varieties
|
||
respond more readily than some of the older varieties. Standard method for applying zinc
|
||
to walnut trees is to drive zinc-bearing metal pieces or glazing points into outer sapwood
|
||
of trees. Other mineral deficiencies which must be corrected are iron, manganese, boron,
|
||
potassium, magnesium, phosphorus, and copper.
|
||
Harvesting — Pollination is often a problem, as Persian walnuts are monoecious, with
|
||
separate staminate and pistillate flowers in different parts of the same tree. Staminate catkins
|
||
are 10-15 cm long and produce 1-4 million pollen grains each. Sometimes freshly picked
|
||
catkins are put on paper in room at 2 rC and the shed pollen stored in desiccator at 0°C.
|
||
Then pollen is blown on trees by fan mounted on truck. Helicopters are sometimes used to
|
||
blow pollen over orchard. Under favorable conditions, the husks of nuts crack open and
|
||
adhere temporarily to twigs, allowing nuts to fall to the ground, usually between September
|
||
1 and November 7. Nut fall may be hastened by shaking the trees with long poles or a boom
|
||
shaker. During harvest period, nuts are picked up 3 or 4 times before the total crop has
|
||
matured and dropped. Nuts should not be allowed to remain on ground too long. Nuts are
|
||
washed, if dirty, and spread out in shallow trays with bottom slats spaced 1.5 to 2 cm apart.
|
||
Nuts should not be exposed to sun for entire day. Trays are piled up so as to permit ventilation
|
||
after nuts have become warm. Too-fast drying causes shell to crack and open. In large
|
||
orchards, a drying house is constructed for curing process. After curing and bleaching, nuts
|
||
are graded and packed for shipment.
|
||
Yields and economics — Newer cvs begin producing nuts in 5 to 6 years; by 7 to 8
|
||
years, they produce about 2.5 tons of nuts per hectare. Orchards on relatively poor, unir
|
||
rigated mountain soil report 1.5 to 2.25 MT/ha; orchards in well-cultivated valleys, 6.5 to
|
||
7.5 MT/ha. A grown individual can yield about 185 kg, but 37 kg is more likely.In the
|
||
U.S., California is the major producing area, with about 129,400 acres producing 77,000
|
||
tons nuts per year; Oregon is second with about 3,500 tons annually; the total valued at
|
||
about $32.3 million. About 60% of Persian walnuts are sold shelled. Lumber from large
|
||
trees may bring up to $1,500 per
|
||
Energy — If the walnut yields of 7,500 kg/ha®^ yielded all their 65% (63 to 67%) oil,
|
||
there is a potential oil yield of nearly 5 MT per year, a very worthwhile target, if attainable.
|
||
The green hulls have recoverable ascorbic acid content (2.5 to 5% of dry weight). Hulls
|
||
contain 12.2% tannin, bark contain 7.5%, leaf blades contain 9 to 11%. After extraction of
|
||
the vitamin C and tannin, the residues might be used for fuel or ethanol. Prunings from the
|
||
trees might contribute another 5 MT biomass per year.
|
||
Biotic factors — Seedlings are very susceptible to mushroom root rot, and Walnut girdle
|
||
disease ‘Blackline’ is thought to occur when certain horticultural varieties of Juglans regia
|
||
are grafted on rootstocks of Juglans hindsii and its hybrids, associated with graft incom
|
||
patibility. Fungi known to attack Persian walnuts include: A ltern arla nucis, A rm illaria
|
||
m ellea, A scoch yta ju glan dis, A spergillus fla vu s, A uricularia auricula-judae, A uricularia
|
||
197
|
||
mesenterica, Cerrena unicolor, Cladosporium herbarum, Coniophora cerebella, Coprinus
|
||
micaceus, Coriolus tephroleucus, Cribaría violaceae, Cryptovalsa extorris, Cylindrosporium
|
||
juglandis, C. uljanishchevii, Cytospora juglandina, Cytosporina juglandina, C. juglandi-
|
||
cola, Diplodia juglandis, Dothiorella gregaria, Erysiphe polygoni, Eutypa ludibunda, Ex-
|
||
osporina fawcetti, Fomes fomentarías, F. igniarius, F. ulmarius, Fusarium avenaceum, F.
|
||
lateritium, Ganoderma applanatum, Glomerella cingulata, Gnomonia ceratostyla, G. Jug
|
||
landis, G. leptostyla, Hemitricia leiotyichia, Hypoxylon mediterraneum, Inonotus hispidas,
|
||
Laetiporus sulphureus, Lentinus cyathiformis, Ficea tenera, Marsonia juglandis, Melanconis
|
||
carthusiana, M. juglandis, Melanconium juglandis, M. oblongum, Melanopus squamosus,
|
||
Microsphaera alni, M. juglandis, Microstroma juglandis, Mycosphaerella saccardoana, M.
|
||
woronowi, Nectria appianata, N. cinnabarina, N. ditissima, Oxyporuspopulinus, Phelliunus
|
||
cryptarum, Phleospora multimaculans, Phoma juglandis, Phomopsis juglandis, Phoma jug
|
||
landis, Phyllactinia guttata, Phyllosticta juglandina, P. juglandis, Phymatotrichum omni-
|
||
vorum, Phytophthora cactorum, P. cinnamomi, P. citrophthora, Pleospora vulgaris, Pleurotus
|
||
ostreatus, Polyporus hispidas, P. picipes, P. squamosus, Polystictus versicolor, Rhizopus
|
||
nigricans, Stereum hirsutum, Trametes suaveolens, Tubercularia juglandis, T. vulgaris,
|
||
Verticillium albo-atrum. Bacteria attacking Persian walnut include: Agrobacterium tume-
|
||
faciens. Bacillus mesentericus. Bacterium juglandis. Pseudomonas juglandis, Xanthomomas
|
||
juglandis. Cuscuta pentagona also parasitizes the tree. The following nematodes have been
|
||
isolated from Persian walnut: Cacopauruspestis, Diplogaster striatus, Diplogaster coronata,
|
||
Ditylenchus intermedias, Meloidogyne arenaria, M. javanica, M. sp., Pratylenchus coffeae,
|
||
P. pratensis, P. vulnus, Rhabditis debilicauda, R. spiculigera, Tylolaimophorus rotundi-
|
||
cauda. Among the insect pests of this walnut are the following: Walnut Blister mite (Er-
|
||
iophytes tristriatus). Walnut aphid (Chromaphis juglandicola), Italian pear scale (Diaspis
|
||
piricola). Calico scale (Eulecanium cerasorum), Frosted scale (Parthenolecanium prui-
|
||
nosum). Walnut scale (Quadraspidiotus juglansregiae). Codling moth (Cydia pomonella).
|
||
Fruit tree leaf-roller {Archips argyrospila), Indian meal moth {Plodia interpunctella), Walnut
|
||
caterpillar {Dataña integerrima). Red-humped caterpillar (Schizura concinna). Walnut span
|
||
worm (Phigalia plumigeraria), and Walnut husk fly (Rhagolestis completa).
|
||
198 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
LECYTHIS MINOR Jacq. (LECYTHIDACEAE) — Coco de Mono
|
||
Syn: L ecyth is elliptica H.B.K.
|
||
Uses — These trees are cultivated for the nuts, which have a delicious flavor and possess
|
||
a high oil content. Small trees are highly ornamental.
|
||
Folk medicine — Duke and Wain^^ cite the species as antiasthmatic, depilatory, and
|
||
poisonous.
|
||
Chemistry — The seeds have been reported to be somewhat toxic, especially if eaten in
|
||
large quantities. Ingesting the nuts is known to cause loss of hair and nails, at least in
|
||
seleniferous areas. Though seeds taste agreeable, injestion may induce nausea, anxiety, and
|
||
giddiness. Dickson^^ attributes the temporary loss of hair and fingernails that he experienced
|
||
after eating 300 to 600 seeds of L. minor to toxic elements in the seeds. Throughout northern
|
||
Colomiba, L. minor is thought to be poisonous. Castaneda,however, feels they are
|
||
nontoxic. The toxicity of the seeds may depend upon the soils. Some evidence suggest that
|
||
toxic seeds come from plants found on soil high in selenium.Mori^^^ suggests that the
|
||
data suggesting toxicity in L. ollaria may in fact refer to this species. Without voucher
|
||
specimens, weTl never know.
|
||
Toxicity — Identified as a selenium-containing analog of the sulfur amino acid, cysta
|
||
thionine, the active compound has the following formula: HOOC-Ch(NH2)-CH2-Se-CH2-
|
||
CH(NH2)C00H.3^"
|
||
Description — Small to medium-sized trees, often branched from base when in open
|
||
habitats, 5 to 25 m tall, to 70 cm DBH, the crown dilated. Twigs gray, glabrous to pubescent.
|
||
Bark gray, relatively smooth when young, with deep vertical fissures when older. Leaf
|
||
blades ovate, elliptic, or oblong, 8.5 to 24.5 x 4.5 to 10 cm, glabrous, coriaceous, with
|
||
12 to 19 pairs of lateral veins; apex mucronate to acuminate, infrequently acute; base obtuse
|
||
to rounded, infrequently truncate, narrowly decurrent; margins usually crenulate to serrate,
|
||
infrequently entire; petiole 5 to 20 mm long, usually puberulous, infrequently glabrous.
|
||
Inflorescences racemose, unbranched, or once-branched, terminal or in axils of uppermost
|
||
leaves, the principal rachis 10 to 35 cm long, with 10 to 75 flowers, all rachises pubescent,
|
||
the pedicels jointed, 1 to 3 mm long below articulation, subtended by an ovate, caducous
|
||
bract 2 to 4 x 2 to 3 mm, with 2 broadly ovate, caducous bracteoles 3 to 6 x 3 to 4 mm
|
||
inserted just below articulation. Flowers 5 to 7 cm diameter; calyx with 6 widely to very
|
||
widely ovate, green lobes 6 to 11 x 6 to 9 mm; petals 6, widely obovate or less frequently
|
||
widely oblong to oblong, 27 to 42 x 14 to 25 mm, green in bud, usually white, less
|
||
frequently light-yellow at anthesis; hood of androecium dorsiventrally expanded, 20 to 23
|
||
X 19 to 25 mm, with well-developed, inwardly curved, antherless appendages, the outside
|
||
of hood white or light-yellow, the appendages always light-yellow; staminal ring with 300
|
||
to 410 stamens, the filaments 2 mm long, dilated at apex, light-yellow, the anthers 0.5 to
|
||
0.7 mm long, yellow; hypanthium usually pubescent, infrequently glabrous; ovary 4-locular,
|
||
with 3 to 6 ovules in each locule, the ovules inserted on floor of locule at juncture with
|
||
septum, the summit of ovary umbonate, the style not well differentiated, 2 to 4.5 mm long.
|
||
Fruits cup-like, globose or turbinate, 5 to 7 x 7 to 9 cm, the pericarp 7.5 to 11 mm thick.
|
||
Seeds fusiform, 2.4 to 3 x 1.3 to 2 cm, reddish-brown, with 4 to 6 light-brown longitudinal
|
||
veins when dried, the testa smooth, with cord-like funicle surrounded by fleshy white aril
|
||
at base."'"’"^’""5
|
||
Germplasm — Reported from the South American Center of Diversity, coco de mono,
|
||
or CVS thereof, is reported to tolerate low pH.^^ Very closely related to another coco de
|
||
mono, Lecythis ollaria, found east of the Andes and also suspected to exhibit seed toxicity.
|
||
(X = 17.)
|
||
Distribution — Introduced at Mayaguez, P.R.; La Lima, Honduras: Summit, Panama;
|
||
and Soledad, Cuba. Ranges from the Maracaibo lowlands of Venezuela to the northern coast
|
||
199
|
||
of Colombia from where it ascends the Magdalena and Cauca Valleys. This species most
|
||
often occurs in dry, open, somewhat disturbed habitats, where it grows as a small, much-
|
||
branched tree. However, it is also found in moister forests, especially along watercourses,
|
||
where it forms a handsome, single-trunked tree to 25 meters.
|
||
Ecology — Ranging from Tropical Very Dry to Wet Forest Life Zones, coco de mono
|
||
is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 9.1 to 22.8 dm (mean of 3 cases = 15.1 dm),
|
||
annual temperature of 24.4 to 26.5°C (mean of 3 cases = 25.3°C), and pH of 5.0 to 8.0
|
||
(mean of 3 cases = 6.6).^^ Thrives along rivers in tropical forests.
|
||
Cultivation — Trees are easily propagated from seeds, but never systematically culti
|
||
vated.^^®
|
||
Harvesting — Flowers most profusely from April to December and produces mature fruit
|
||
from December to February throughout its native range. At Summit Gardens, Panama, where
|
||
it is cultivated as an ornamental, this species flowers during the wet season from April to
|
||
November.Like Brazil nuts, these nuts are collected from native trees when ripe. Trees
|
||
may begin to bear fruit when only 2 m tall.^^®
|
||
Yields and economics — Formally, before 1968, nuts were distributed regularly, at least
|
||
locally in Honduras.
|
||
Energy — These relatively slow-growing trees and their prunings could serve as energy
|
||
sources. Annual leaf litter from another species of Lecythis was nearly 2 MT/ha/year.^^^
|
||
Biotic factors — Probably pollinated by bees and disseminated by fruit bats as in Lecythis
|
||
pisonis.
|
||
200 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
LECYTHIS OLEARIA L. (LECYTHIDACEAE) — Monkey Pod, Monkey Pot, Olla de Mona
|
||
Uses — The Monkey Pot is grown and/or collected for the seeds, which are edible and
|
||
are the source of an oil used for illumination and for making soap. Sap may be mixed into
|
||
an agreeable drink. Wood is easy to split, strong, and polishes well. Resistant to insects,
|
||
termites, and barnacles, it is used for wharves, piles, sluices, and house-framing. Bark is
|
||
recommended for tanning.
|
||
Folk medicine — Oil extracted from the seeds is considered a powerful hemostat.'^^
|
||
Latex of the pericarp is used by South American Indians as a depilatory.
|
||
Chemistry — Ingestion of the seed has associated with alopecia and selenium poisoning,
|
||
as manifested by acute intoxication, fever, diarrhea, and various neurological symptoms,
|
||
the active principle being the selenium analog of the sulfur amino acid cystathionine.*^
|
||
While I might try the seeds were I suffering cancer or AIDS, there are enough toxicology
|
||
data to make me avoid the seeds as part of my regular diet. After prolonged exposure to
|
||
active extracts or the seeds, sacrificed guinea pigs exhibited hair growth inhibition, atrophy
|
||
and disappeamce of the sebaceous glands, marked atrophy of the epidermis, edema, and
|
||
intraalveolar hemorrhage of the lungs, necrotic foci of the liver and spleen, and intense
|
||
sinusoidal congestion of the adrenals.Such symptoms might also result from experimental
|
||
self-medication.
|
||
Description — Small-to-medium tree with warty branches; bark reddish-yellow, hard and
|
||
heavy; wood reddish-yellow to dark-brown, very strong. Leaves sessile or subsessile, al
|
||
ternate, chartaceous, ovate to oblong-ovate, apex acute to obtuse, base rounded to subcordate,
|
||
subserrate, the reticulate venation not prominent, 5.2 to 9 cm long, 2.5 to 5 cm wide.
|
||
Inflorescence in terminal spikes, with ovate deciduous bracts. Flowers variable; sepals 6,
|
||
oblong, uneven with rounded margins, concave, persistent; petals 6, larger than the sepals,
|
||
spathulate, subequal, oblong, to subrounded, concave, with a reflex margin, white. Capsule
|
||
201
|
||
pot-shaped, brown, rounded, 3.5 to 6 x 5.6 to 8.2 cm, with a 6-lobed ring-shaped, obtuse
|
||
calycine ring; pericarp woody; seeds with brown covering and a yellowish oily meat.^^’^^^
|
||
Germplasm — Reported from the South American Center of Diversity, monkey pot, or
|
||
CVS thereof, is reported to tolerate limestone and low pH.^^ Some authors think this is
|
||
conspecific with L. minor. Prance and Mori,^^^ tabulating the differences, maintain them as
|
||
distinct.
|
||
Distribution — North-central Venezuela, east of the easternmost branch of the Andes,
|
||
west of the Paria Peninsula, and north of the Rio Orinoco.
|
||
Ecology — Ranging from Subtropical Moist through Tropical Very Dry to Moist Forest
|
||
Life Zones, monkey pot is reported to tolerate precipitation of 9.1 to 22.8 dm (mean of 4
|
||
cases = 13.3), annual temperature of 23.7 to 26.2°C (mean of 4 cases = 24.8°C), and pH
|
||
of 5.0 to 7.1 (mean of 4 cases = 6.4).^^ Usually a small tree in savanna-like environments,
|
||
sometimes to 20 m tall in more favorable environments.
|
||
Cultivation — Trees are easily propagated from seed, in nature probably disseminated
|
||
by bats.
|
||
Harvesting — Seeds harvested from wild trees as available. Extraction of oil said to be
|
||
carried out by local populations.
|
||
Yields and economics — Seed collected locally and used for oil or as a food, especially
|
||
by natives of northern South America.
|
||
Energy — I can only speculate about these tropical trees with no real yield data. With
|
||
breeding for dwarfing and improved reliability and quantity of yield, I think these trees
|
||
could yield 1 to 3 MT oil per ha. Prunings, fruit husks, and leaf litter could also be captured
|
||
for energy conversion.
|
||
Biotic factors — No pests or diseases reported on this plant.
|
||
202 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
LECYTHIS PISONIS Cambess. (LECYTHIDACEAE) — Sapucaia
|
||
Uses — Sapucaia nuts and paradise nuts are almost contradictory terms, paradise implying
|
||
a good exotic flavor, and sapucaia because, according to one interpretation, the nuts were
|
||
fed to chickens by Amazonian
|
||
Indians.Mori is of the opinon that sapucaia is the Tupi-
|
||
guorani name given to the fruit because of the wailing sound of the wind blowing across
|
||
the empty open fruits.Some connoisseurs consider them the finest of nuts. The kernels,
|
||
eaten raw or roasted, are occasionally used to make candies or cakes. An edible oil expressed
|
||
from the kernels is also used to produce soap and illumination. Since monkeys are fond of
|
||
the seeds, the empty pods, with lids removed, are baited with com to trap monkeys who
|
||
can get their open hands in but have trouble getting their closed hands out. The trees could
|
||
be widely planted, as they furnish fuel, food, timber, and are ornamental.Still they have
|
||
their detractions. Falling empty pods are dangerous to pedestrians. Trees are deciduous, so
|
||
leaves must be raked after they have fallen. The fleshy flowers are also messy.
|
||
Folk medicine — The oil is regarded as antipodriagic and cardiotonic. Water preserved
|
||
in the fmits for 24 hr is said to remove skin blemishes.While I find no anticancer data
|
||
for this species, I would not hesitate to eat the seeds of the seleniferous varieties if I had
|
||
cancer or AIDS. I might suffer from nausea and alopecia, side effects common with synthetic
|
||
chemotherapy. Some people trek to New York to visit with an M.D. (I. Revici) who has
|
||
“ anti-AIDS medications” based on synthetic combinations of selenium and fatty acids or
|
||
vegetable oils. I urge further testing of seleniferous Lecythidaceous fmits in the U.S. cancer
|
||
screening program.
|
||
Chemistry — Rosengarten^^^ suggests that the kernels contain ca. 62% fat and 20%
|
||
protein. Pereira^^^ says fmits contain 9% oil. Finding no more data on these Lecythis species,
|
||
I suggest that they might be comparable in composition to Brazil nuts in component fatty
|
||
acid percentages, i.e., ca. 15% palmitic-, ca. 5% stearic-, ca. 45% oleic-, and ca. 35%
|
||
linoleic. Selenium content might be predicted to vary with provenance. Nuts are said to get
|
||
rancid within a week or two.^^
|
||
Description — Tree to 40 m tall, 1V2 m DBH, deciduous near the end of the dry season.
|
||
Leaves simple, alternate, entire, penninerved. Flowers large, attractive, yellow to lilac or
|
||
lavender or blue, sepals 6, petals 6, stamens numerous, ovary 4-locular. Pods 30 to 40
|
||
seeded, operculate. Seeds wrinkled, irregularly oblong, ca. 5 cm long, more rounded than
|
||
Brazil nuts, lighter brown and with thinner shell. Kernels ivory white, with a creamy texture.
|
||
Mori and Prance,keenly aware of the taxonomic complexities of the group, list 10
|
||
characteristics, the combination of which uniquely identifies the “ sapucaia group” :
|
||
1. Large trees (at maturity they are emergents)
|
||
2. Brownish bark with pronounced vertical fissures
|
||
3. Laminated outer bark
|
||
4. Deciduous leaves which are flushed shortly before or at the same time as the flowers
|
||
5. Leaves, flowers, and fmits which possess an unidentified compound that oxidizes
|
||
bluish-green when the parts are bmised
|
||
6. Hood of androecium flat with the proximal appendages anther-bearing and the distal
|
||
ones antherless
|
||
7. Pollen of the hood anthers turning from yellow or white to black after 24 hr
|
||
8. Short styles with an annular expansion towards the apex
|
||
9. Large, dehiscent, woody fmits
|
||
10. Seeds with a long cord-like funicle which is surrounded by a large fleshy aril
|
||
Germplasm — Reported from the South American Center of Diversity, sapucaia and
|
||
closely related species, show a rather general lack of tolerance to environmental extremes.
|
||
203
|
||
Such narrow tolerances seem to be characteristics of rainforest species. As defined by Mori
|
||
and Prance,the sapucaia group consists of three species, in addition to L. piso n is (incl.
|
||
L. usitata): L. am pla (incl. L. costaricen sis) from Nicaragua to Colombia, L. lanceolata,
|
||
from Rio de Janeiro to Bahia, and L. zabucaja (incl. L. tum efacta), from Venezuela and
|
||
the Guianas disjunctly to Central Amazonia. Many of the data in the literature on sapucaia
|
||
may refer to one or the other of these.
|
||
D istrib u tion — Common in the coastal forests of eastern Brazil and Amazonia.
|
||
E cology — Estimated to range from Tropical Moist to Wet through Subtropical Dry to
|
||
Wet Forest Life Zones, sapucaia is estimated to tolerate annual precipitation of 12 to 42
|
||
dm, annual temperature of 23 to 2 T C , and pH of 4 to 8. Said to occur in samll groups near
|
||
hilltops in forests. The ‘sapucaia’ group of L ecythis is not found at elevations over 800 m
|
||
or in the dryer savanna or caatinga habitats. They inhabit forests with around 20(X) mm or
|
||
more rainfall per year and in some areas tolerate moderate dry seasons of up to 6 months.
|
||
Nevertheless, this is a typical moist-forest group which provides a good example of the
|
||
effects of climatic and geological changes on the distribution and evolution of neotropical
|
||
lowland trees.T he annual leaf litterfall of a 10-year-old stand was estimated at 1,849
|
||
kg/ha at Pau-Brasil Ecological Station, on oxisols (haplorthoxs) pH 4.5 to 5.5, annual
|
||
precipitation 13 to 14 dm, annual temperature 24 to 25°C with annual amplitude of 7 to
|
||
362 on the phenology and floral biology are treated by Mori et al.^^° Over 6 years
|
||
in Bahia, leaf fall was mostly from September to December, flowering in October and
|
||
November, and fruiting 7 months later in March and April (southern hemisphere).
|
||
C ultivation — Seeds could be planted in situ or in pots for transplant later.
|
||
H arvestin g — Said to start bearing when 8 to 10 years old, the seeds are largely harvested
|
||
from the wild, often by animals other than man. Bats are the dispersal agent. It is very
|
||
difficult for man to get the seeds before bats get them.^*^
|
||
Y ield s and econ om ics — Rosengarten^®^ quotes estimates of 70 kg nuts per tree. None
|
||
theless, there are no large plantations, only a few small plantings in Brazil, the Guianas,
|
||
the West Indies, and Malaysia. The fact that the fruit is dehiscent, exposing the delicious
|
||
nuts to the nut-eating animals and birds, makes this much less attractive than its relative,
|
||
the Brazil nut, for commercial exploitation. Dwarfed cvs, which might be bagged for
|
||
protection from predators, might make the sapucaia a more attractive commercial possiblity.
|
||
E n ergy — Assuming 50 kg nuts per tree and 100 trees per ha (they may bear quite
|
||
precociously) and 60% oil, there is an incredible 3 MT oil per hectare, if you could capture
|
||
it all. This edible oil could be used for fuel, if fuel were more valuable than food, and the
|
||
press-cake, if non-seleniferous, could be used for food or feed. Prunings from the trees, as
|
||
well as the husks, might be used for fuel. As Periera^^^ notes, the dry fruits serve as fuel.
|
||
Leaf litter alone approaches 2 MT/ha/hr.
|
||
B iotic factors — Mori and Prance^^^ found that the carpenter bee, X ylocopa fro n ta lis, is
|
||
a regular visitor to the flowers. It transports two types of pollen from the flower, viable
|
||
pollen from the staminal ring and non viable pollen (the reward) from the hood of the flowers.
|
||
Non viable pollen is collected and placed in pollen baskets; viable pollen, deposited on head
|
||
and back, causes fertilization.Bats, monkeys, parrots, and peccaries probably obtain most
|
||
of the pro duc tion.In Trinidad, bats {P hyllostom us hastatus) remove the seeds,
|
||
dropping them after eating the aril, either in flight or under their roosts. Bats are the main
|
||
dispersers.
|
||
204 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
LICANIA RIGIDA Benth. (ROSACEAE) — Oiticica
|
||
Syn.: P lera g in a um hresissim a Arruda Camara
|
||
Uses — Seeds of this tree are the source of Oiticica Oil, a drying oil used in place of
|
||
tung oil for varnishes and protective coatings. Trees are sometimes grown as shade trees in
|
||
villages where the plants are native. Timber sometimes used in construction.*’
|
||
Folk medicine — No data available.
|
||
Chemistry — Hilditch and Williams*^^ indicate that the seed fat contains 61% alpha-
|
||
licanic acid (4-keto-9,l 1,13-octadecatrienic acid) (C18H28O3) and 17% alpha- elaeostearic
|
||
acids. Licanic acid is unique among natural fatty acids in containing a ketonic group.
|
||
According to Vaughan,the oil most closely resembles tung oil in chemical and physical
|
||
properties. The oil cake contains 9% protein, but contains so much tannin and residual oil
|
||
as to be unsuitable for animal feed. Hager’s Handbook*^^ puts the oil content of the whole
|
||
fruit at 33 to 45%, the kernels at 49 to 65%. Of this, 70 to 82% is alpha-licanic acid, 4 to
|
||
12% oleic-, up to 4% linoleic-, 10 to 11% palmitic-, and stearic- and isolicanic-acid.
|
||
Myricetin is also reported. Here we have no exception to disprove the rule. In general,
|
||
tropical oilseeds have higher percentages of saturated fatty acids, compared to their temperate
|
||
counterparts. In the Rosaceae, seed fats of tropical genera have about 10% saturated fatty
|
||
acids, temperate genera about 5%. The tropical oils hence become rancid more rapidly. *^®’*^*
|
||
Description — Small tree to 15 m tall, with spreading crown, the young branches lanate
|
||
to tomentellous, soon becoming glabrous and lenticellate. Leaves oblong to elliptic, 6.0 to
|
||
13.0 (to 16.0) cm long, 2.8 to 6.5 cm broad, coriaceous, rounded to cordate at base, glabrous
|
||
and shining on upper surface, the lower surface with deeply reticulate venation quite or
|
||
nearly describing stomatal cavities, with lanate pubescence among but not on veins; midrib
|
||
prominulous above, puberulous toward base when young; primary veins 11 to 16 pairs.
|
||
205
|
||
prominent on lower surface, prominulous above; 5.0 to 8.0 cm long, tomentose when young,
|
||
becoming glabrescent with age, terete, with two sessile glands. Stipules linear, to 10.0 mm
|
||
long, membranous, caducous. Inflorescenes racemose panicles, the rachis and branches
|
||
gray-tomentose. Flowers 2.5 to 3.5 mm long, in small groups, sessile on primary branches
|
||
of inflorescence. Bracts and bracteoles 1.5 to 2.5 mm long, ovate, tomentose on exterior,
|
||
persistent, entire to serrulate, eglandular. Receptacle campanulate, gray-tomentose on ex
|
||
terior, tomentose within; pedicels to 0.5 mm long. Calyx lobes acute, tomentose on exterior,
|
||
tomentellous within. Petals 5, densely pubescent. Stamens ca. 14; filaments equalling calyx
|
||
lobes, connate to about half-way from base, densely pubescent. Ovary attached to base of
|
||
receptacle, villous. Style equalling calyx lobes, villous nearly to apex. Fruit elliptic, 4.0 to
|
||
5.5 cm long; epicarp smooth, drying green or black; mesocarp thin, fleshy; endocarp thin,
|
||
fibrous, fragile, fibers arranged longitudinally promoting longitudinal dehiscence, sparsely
|
||
pubescent within. Germination hypogeal.^^^
|
||
Germplasm — Reported from the South American Center of Diversity, oiticica, or cvs
|
||
thereof, is reported to tolerate drought. Some efforts have been made to develop high-
|
||
yielding strains which can be propagated vegetatively. The number of native trees is limited
|
||
by their habitat requirements and cannot be increased to meet increasing demands for oil.®^^^^
|
||
Distribution — Dry forests and gallery forests of northeastern Brazil. According to
|
||
Prance,this species is cultivated outside its natural range, e.g., in Trinidad, “but is not
|
||
used commercially outside Brazil.” This tree is confined primarily to the arid regions of
|
||
northeastern Brazil, including the states of Ceara, Rio Grande de Norte, Bahia, Piaui,
|
||
Maranhao, Paraiba, and northern Pernambuco. Introduced to Trinidad and a few other regions
|
||
with similar ecological conditions.
|
||
Ecology — Oiticica trees thrive on dry tropical lowlands where there is a dry season from
|
||
July to December and where the annual rainfall varies from ca. 9 to 14 dm.®^ It is often
|
||
found in dry open grasslands bordering rivers. Plantations should be put on well-drained,
|
||
alluvial, fertile soils, rich in potash, with a pH of about 7.0. The average temperature should
|
||
be 31.7 to 32.9°C.^^^ Markley^^ suggests that it is especially common along the banks of
|
||
rivers, said to form dense groves in rich alluvial soils.
|
||
Cultivation — Propagation is by seed, grafting, and budding. Seeds lose their viability
|
||
soon after ripening, seeds 6 months old having lost most of their viability. Best growth is
|
||
obtained when the seeds are sown in well-watered, good alluvial soils, in a nursery. Seedlings
|
||
are about 17 cm tall in 60 days. The nursery should be irrigated and deeply cultivated.
|
||
Transplants are set 0.5 m apart in rows 1 m apart and irrigated every 10 to 15 days during
|
||
the dry season. Four months after transplanting (when the seedling is about 6 months old)
|
||
seedlings average nearly a meter tall. Stocks are grafted when 5 to 7 months old. Several
|
||
methods of grafting, including inarching and budding, have been tried, with budding being
|
||
most practicable, because of the difficulty in transporting stocks when inarching. Buds
|
||
sprouted in 25 to 80 days after grafting, mostly in 24 to 40 days. The period between sowing
|
||
of seed and final setting of the grafted tree in the orchard is about 22 months, depending
|
||
upon the time of the rainy season.
|
||
Harvesting — Usually 3 years after the beginning of nursery work or 2 years and 3
|
||
months after grafting, about 12% of the trees were found to flower and set fruit. Then the
|
||
trees continue to bear for many years, some estimate as long as 75 years. Ripened fruits
|
||
fall to the ground or are knocked off by shaking the trees. They are collected by men,
|
||
women, and children, and delivered to local warehouses. Extracting companies maintain
|
||
collection stations at the end of or along the few available roads or railroads in the regions
|
||
where the nuts grow native. After the refining companies receive the fruits, they ship them
|
||
to larger warehouses or the extracting companies where the fruits are cleaned and prepared
|
||
for processing. Seed (kernel) is easily removed from the husk and the oil obtained by pressure
|
||
alone, or by pressure plus action of solvents. Because of its unpleasant odor and semisolid
|
||
206 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
state, its uses will be greatly restricted until means are found for refining it and keeping it
|
||
in a liquid state. After pressing, the oil is transported to the refinery. Harvesting is from
|
||
December through April. As Vaughan^^^ puts it, “ From December to March, the fruits
|
||
fall to the ground and are collected.”
|
||
Yields and economics — Having seen no published yield data on this tree, I estimate
|
||
that in good years a tree may drop 2 to 3 MT fruits per hectare, suggesting potential kernel
|
||
yields of 1,200 to 3,000 kg, and oil yields of 700 to 1,800 kg/ha. Concerning the oil yields,
|
||
the following data may be helpful: average weight per nut = 2.27 to 4.7 g; average percent
|
||
of kernel per nut = 58 to 70%; average percent of oil per kernel = 52.9 to 60%.^^^ Felling
|
||
the tree and exporting seed are prohibited. Brazil has the monopoly on production of Oiticica
|
||
Oil, producing annually ca. 20,000 MT, this amount fluctuating from year to year. Vaughan^^^
|
||
suggested an annual seed production of 54,000 MT. In 1941, Brazil produced 18 to 19 MT,
|
||
exporting more than 16 MT.^^^ Oiticica oil must compete with tung, dehydrated castor oil,
|
||
and in some cases, with linseed oil. Around 1957, the industry was centered in Ceara, where
|
||
14 of the 20 processing mills were located. The largest mill, Brazil Oiticica S.A., had a
|
||
reported crushing capacity of 3,500 tons per month, mostly oiticica and cashew.
|
||
Energy — Prunings and falling biomass from large trees like this could easily add up to
|
||
5 to 10 MT/ha. Seed yields should be higher than those of temperate tree members of the
|
||
Rosaceae, e.g., almond. The press-cake, because of a relatively toxic reputation, might be
|
||
better for fuel than for food.
|
||
Biotic factors — Fertilization of the flowers is by means of insects, but a large number
|
||
of buds drop before opening or without setting fruit. It has been estimated that for a tree to
|
||
set 150,000 seeds (458 kg), it would have to bear 12 million buds.^^®
|
||
207
|
||
MAC AD AMI A INTEGRIFOLIA Maiden & Betche, MAC AD AMI A TETRAPHYLLA L. John
|
||
son (PROTEACEAE) — Macadamia Nuts, Australian Nuts
|
||
Uses — Macadamia nuts are eaten raw or, after cooking in oil, are roasted and salted;
|
||
also used to make an edible bland salad oil. Rumsey^®^ recommends it also as a timber tree
|
||
and ornamental. Years ago a coffee-like beverage known as “ almond coffee” was marketed
|
||
from the seeds.
|
||
Folk medicine — No data available.
|
||
Chemistry — Per 100 g, the nut is reported to contain 691 calories, 3.0 to 3.1 g H2O,
|
||
7.8 to 8.7 g protein, 71.4 to 71.6 g fat, 15.1 to 15.9 g total carbohydrate, 2.5 g fiber, 1.7
|
||
g ash, 48 mg Ca, 161 mg P, 20 mg Fe, 264 mg K, 0 mg (3-carotene equivalent, 0.34 mg
|
||
thiamine, 0.11 mg riboflavin, 1.3 mg niacin, and 0 mg ascorbic acid.®^ According to
|
||
MacFarlane and Harris, the oil is high in monounsaturates (79%) and palmitoleic acid
|
||
(16 to 25%). The composition ranges from 0.1 to 1.4% lauric, 0.7 to 0.8 myristic, 8.0 to
|
||
9.2 palmitic, 15.6 to 24.6 palmitoleic, 3.3 to 3.4 stearic, 54.8 to 64.2 oleic, 1.5 to 1.9
|
||
linoleic, 2.4 to 2.7 arachidic, 2.1 to 3.1 eicosenoic, and 0.3 to 0.7% behenic acids. The
|
||
oil-cake contains 8.1% moisture, 12.6% oil, 2.6% crude fiber, 33.4% crude protein, and
|
||
43.3% N-free extract.
|
||
Description — Macadamia integrifolia: trees up to 20 m tall, with spread of 13 m. Leaves
|
||
opposite in seedlings, later in whorls of 3, pale-green or bronze when young, 10 to 30 cm
|
||
long, margins with few or no spines, petioles about 1.3 cm long. Flowers creamy white,
|
||
petalless, borne in groups of 3 or 4 along a long axis in racemes, much like grapes. Fruit
|
||
208 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
consisting of a fleshy green husk enclosing a spherical seed; nuts round or nearly so, surface
|
||
smooth or nearly so, 1.3 to 2.5 cm in diameter; shell tough, fibrous, difficult to crack;
|
||
kernel white, of uniform quality, shrinking only slightly after harvesting. Flowers June
|
||
through to March, some strains almost ever-bearing, flowering while fruiting.
|
||
M acadam ia tetraph ylla: trees up to 20 m tall, with spread of 13 m. Leaves opposite in
|
||
seedlings, commonly in fours rarely in threes or fives, purple or reddish when young, margins
|
||
serrate with many spines, up to 50 cm long, sessile or on very short petioles. Flowers pink,
|
||
in large racemes. Fruit consisting of a fleshy green husk enclosing one seed; nuts usually
|
||
elliptical or spindle-shaped, surface pebbled; kernel grayish; variable in quality and shrinking
|
||
some after harvest. Flowers between August and October, producing one main crop. Between
|
||
these two distinct types are numerous intermediate forms varying in spininess of leaves,
|
||
color of flower, size of nut and thickness of shell.
|
||
Germplasm — Reported from the Australian Center of Diversity, macadamias or cvs
|
||
thereof are reported to tolerate drought, slope and wind.^^ Since 1956, M acadam ia inte-
|
||
grifolia (smooth-shelled type) and M acadam ia tetraphylla L. (rough-shelled type) are the
|
||
names properly applied to the cultivated Macadamia nuts. Prior to this time they had been
|
||
generally referred to M acadam ia ternifolia. F. Muell. is a distinct species, bearing small,
|
||
bitter, cyanogenic seeds less than 1.3 cm in diameter, inedible and never cultivated. Many
|
||
cultivars have been developed, and grafted trees of promising selections have been made.
|
||
Three cvs of M . integrifolia, ‘Kakea’, ‘Ikaika’ and ‘Keauhou’, have been planted extensively
|
||
in Hawaii, all giving satisfactory production under favorable conditions. ‘Keaau’ has been
|
||
more recently recommended for commercial planting in Hawaii, since it is highly resistant
|
||
to wind and yields 5 to 10% more than previous cvs, the entire crop maturing and dropping
|
||
before the end of November. Most of the Australian crop is based upon M . tetraphylla,
|
||
with some orchards of grafted M . integrifolia cvs. Among the medium- to thick-shelled
|
||
selections, used mainly for processing, are ‘Richard’, ‘Tinana’, ‘Our Choice’ and ‘Hinde’.
|
||
Rough-shelled types, mostly grown for table purposes, are ‘Collard’, ‘Howard’, ‘Sewell’
|
||
and ‘Ebony’. Cvs showing hybrid characteristics are ‘Oakhurst’ and ‘Nutty Glen’. ‘Ted-
|
||
dington’ is a hybrid with thin shell.
|
||
Distribution — Native to coastal rain-forests of central east Australia (New South Wales
|
||
and Queensland). Introduced in other parts of tropics, e.g., Ceylon, and commercially grown
|
||
in Costa Rica, Hawaii, and France, at medium elevation.
|
||
Ecology — Ranging from Warm Temperate Dry (without frost) through Tropical Moist
|
||
Forest Life Zones, macadamias are reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 7 to 26 dm,
|
||
annual temperature of 15 to 25°C, and pH of 4.5 to 8.0.^^ Macadamia grows best in rain
|
||
forest areas, along coasts with high humidity and heavy rainfall. However, it is tolerant of
|
||
adverse conditions when once established. Inland crops are usually lighter than coastal crops.
|
||
Trees produce a deep taproot and relatively few lateral roots; therefore, they may need
|
||
windbreaks in exposed areas. Under orchard conditions, trees are shapely, robust, and more
|
||
heavily foliaged than they are in rain-forest. Grows well on a wide range of soils, but fails
|
||
on infertile coastal sands, heavy clays, or gravelly ridges. Yields well on deep, well-drained
|
||
loams and sandy loams. Slopes steeper than 1 in 25 should be planted on the contour, and
|
||
every precaution taken to prevent soil erosion.
|
||
Cultivation — Propagation by seed is not difficult, but seedlings are variable in production
|
||
and nut characteristics, and of little value for commercial plantings. Freshly harvested nuts
|
||
are best for germination, but require 30 to 90 days before germination. Propagation is usually
|
||
by cuttings, marcottage, and side-tongue grafts. Root-stocks for grafting are readily grown
|
||
from seed by ordinary nursery means. Grafting in Macadamia is more difficult than in most
|
||
nut trees, due to hardness of wood. Best results are obtained when seedling root-stocks are
|
||
side-wedge grafted with selected scions. After-care of graft is similar to that practiced in
|
||
other trees. Budding is much less satisfactory than grafting. The most suitable time for
|
||
209
|
||
transplanting young trees to orchard is from February to April in Australia and in Hawaii,
|
||
when rainfall is good and sufficient soil moisture available. Taproot should be severed about
|
||
30 cm below ground about 6 weeks before time to transplant, to allow fibrous roots to
|
||
develop. Roots are very susceptible to exposure and should not be allowed to dry out. Grafted
|
||
trees should be planted with the union well above ground level and watered immediately.
|
||
Since trees have a tendency to grow tall, young trees, when about 75 cm tall, should be
|
||
topped little by little to produce a few evenly spaced limbs, thus developing a strong, rounded
|
||
symmetrical tree. Little pruning is required in bearing trees except to discourage leaders, to
|
||
reduce lateral growth, to let in light, and to make cultural and harvesting operations more
|
||
favorable. Pruning should be done toward the end of winter after the crop is harvested.
|
||
Macadamia grows best in soils with a good supply of humus. Farm-yard manure may be
|
||
added, and green manure crops can be grown between trees in summer. Under orchard
|
||
conditions, regular applications of fertilizer are required, as a 8:10:5 formula, at a rate of
|
||
.45 kg per tree per year of age, maximum of 4.5 kg. Fertilizer should be applied in early
|
||
spring just before trees make new growth and start flowering. Zinc deficiencies seem to be
|
||
a problem with this tree — the symptoms being small, yellowish or slightly mottled leaves
|
||
which are bunched together, crop retardation, and poor shoot growth. The condition corrected
|
||
by application of foliar spray in early spring after the first flush of growth, at a rate of 4.5
|
||
kg zinc sulfate, 1.3 kg soda ash (or 1.7 kg hydrate lime) in 100 gal water. However, spray
|
||
is effective at any period of year if symptoms are obvious. Since root system is rather close
|
||
to surface, shallow cultivation for weed control should be practiced. Summer cover crops,
|
||
e.g., cowpeas, and autumn green manure crops may be grown between trees until harvest
|
||
time. Grazing cattle on weeds and grass in orchards has the advantage of adding animal
|
||
manure.
|
||
Harvesting — Nuts mature 6 to 7 months after flowering and should be allowed to ripen
|
||
on the trees. Usually the nuts fall to the ground when mature. In some cvs, nuts remain on
|
||
trees and must be removed with rakes. After harvesting, nuts are dehusked, usually with an
|
||
improvised com-sheller, washed, placed on wire trays for about 6 weeks to dry out, graded,
|
||
and shipped to market. Machinery for cracking shells has been designed for processing
|
||
purposes, in addition to several efficient hand-operated crackers, which produce a kernel
|
||
undamaged. Kernels which are broken during cracking are used by confectioners. Shelled
|
||
kernels deteriorate rather quickly unless kept in vacuum-sealed jars. Processed nuts when
|
||
roasted and slightly salted keep extremely well.^^^’^"^®
|
||
Yields and economics — Most trees begin bearing fruit at 6 to 7 years, while other trees
|
||
must be 10 to 15, vegetatively propagated trees bearing earlier. Yield records vary widely,
|
||
depending on strain characteristics and environmental factors. Macadamia has great com
|
||
mercial potential in the tropics and makes an excellent door-yard tree. In addition to pro
|
||
duction of nuts in Australia, production in Hawaii in 1970 amounted to 5750 tons. Presently,
|
||
production is being developed in South Africa, Paraguay, Costa Rica, Jamaica, Samoa, and
|
||
Zimbabwe.
|
||
Energy — According to Saleeb et al.,^^® nuts of M. integrifolia and M. tetraphylla are
|
||
equal in oil content, with an iodine value of 75.4 and 71.8, respectively. They describe a
|
||
method for partially extracting the oil (6 to 14% of the weight of intact oven-dry kernels),
|
||
rendering them more attractive, digestible, and less fattening, while diverting 14% of the
|
||
weight to oil production. In Australia yields are estimated at about 45 kg per tree annually;
|
||
in Hawaii, at 135 kg per tree. New cultivars are known to yield as much as 3.75 tons/ha,
|
||
averaging 1 ton of kernels, which should contain more than 700 kg oil/ha renewably (oil
|
||
makes up 65 to 75% of the kernel).
|
||
Biotic factors — Macadamia trees are attacked by G loeosporium sp. (Blossom blight)
|
||
and M acrophom a m acadam iae. Nematodes isolated from trees include: H elicotylenchus
|
||
dihystera, R otylenchus erythrinae, and Xiphinem a am ericanum . In Hawaii, the Southern
|
||
green stink-bug is a serious problem, damaging about 10% of the seed.^*^
|
||
210
|
||
MADHUCA LONGIFOLIA (L.) Macbr. (SAPOTACEAE) — Mahua, Illupei Tree, Mawra
|
||
Butter Tree
|
||
Syn.: Madhuca indica J. F. Gmel., Bassia longifolia L.
|
||
Uses — Mahua is valued for its edible flowers and oil-bearing seeds. Fresh flowers are
|
||
extremely sweet, less so when dried, having a flavor resembling that of figs. Rich in vitamins,
|
||
the flowers are eaten fresh or dried and cooked with rice, grains or shredded coconut, fried
|
||
or baked into cakes, or ground into flour and used in various foodstuffs. A large portion of
|
||
the crop of flowers is made into syrup containing ca. 60% sugar, suitable for making jams,
|
||
sweetmeats, or as a honey substitute, for production of alcohol (with average yields of 90
|
||
gals of 95% alcohol per ton of dried flowers), for making vinegar, or distilled liqueurs and
|
||
wine. Molasses sugar of good quality is made from mahua. Syrup is used by natives of
|
||
Bastar (in Madhya Pradesh) instead of brown sugar. Flowers, and spent flowers after fer
|
||
mentation, are used as feed for livestock. The flesh of animals fed on mahua flowers has a
|
||
delicate flavor. Pressed cake of corollas is used as fertilizer. Mahua cake has insecticidal
|
||
and piscicidal properties. Because the saponin present in it has a specific action against
|
||
earthworms, it is applied to lawns and golf greens. Used, along with Acacia concinna, as
|
||
a hairwash in South India. Seeds, with 50 to 60% fat content, are the source of Mahua Oil
|
||
or Tallow Mawra Butter, used for manufacturing soaps and candles, and when refined, used
|
||
as butter. Oil has poor keeping quality. Used for edible and cooking purposes in some rural
|
||
areas. Refined oil is also used in the manufacturer of lubricating greases and fatty alcohols,
|
||
and as a raw material for the production of stearic acid. Wood is durable, lasting exceptionally
|
||
well under water, planes well, and takes a good finish, but is difficult to saw, and has a
|
||
tendency to split or crack. Wood is used for building purposes, as door and window frames,
|
||
beams, and posts, furniture, sports goods, musical instruments, oil and sugar presses, boats
|
||
and ship-building, bridges, well construction, turnery, agricultural implements, drums, carv
|
||
ing, and has been tried for railway sleepers. The bark contains 17% tannin and is used for
|
||
dyeing and tanning. Mahua berries are eaten raw or cooked, and are eaten by cattle, sheep,
|
||
goats, monkeys, and birds. Sometimes used as green manure.
|
||
211
|
||
Folk Medicine — According to Hartwell,the flowers are used in folk remedies for
|
||
abdominal tumors. Reported to be anodyne, antidote, astringent, bactericide, carminative,
|
||
demulcent, emetic, emollient, expectorant, insecticide, lactagogue, laxative, piscicide, re
|
||
frigerant, stimulant, and tonic, mahua is a folk remedy for bee-sting, bilious conditions,
|
||
blister, blood disorders, breast ailments, bronchitis, cachexia, cholera, colds, consumption,
|
||
cough, diabetes, dysuria, ear ailments, eye ailments, fever, fistula, gingivitis, headaches,
|
||
heart problems, intestinal ailments, itch, leprosy, orchitis, phthisis, piles, pimples, rheu
|
||
matism, skin ailments, smallpox, snakebite, suppuration, tonsillitis, tuberculosis, tumors of
|
||
the abdomen, and wounds.^’ The gummy juice is used for rheumatism, the bark decoction
|
||
as an astringent and emollient, and as a remedy for itch; root, bark, leaves, and flowers for
|
||
snakebite, the flowers for scorpion sting.Mahua is considered to be astringent, stimulant,
|
||
emollient, demulcent, and nutritive in Ayurvedic medicine. Bark used to treat rheumatism,
|
||
ulcers, itches, bleeding and spongy gums, tonsillitis, leprosy, and diabetes. The emollient
|
||
oil is used in skin diseases, rheumatism, bilious fevers, burning sensations, headaches; being
|
||
laxative, it is useful in habitual constipation, piles, and hemorrhoids; and is used as an
|
||
emetic. Used in winter for chapped hands. Roots are applied to ulcers, bleeding tonsillitis,
|
||
rheumatism, diabetes mellitus, and spongy gums. Medicinally, flowers are reported to be
|
||
cooling, aphrodisiac, demulcent, galactagogue, expectorant, nutritive, tonic, and carmina
|
||
tive, are considered to be beneficial in heart diseases, bronchitis, coughs, wasting diseases,
|
||
burning sensation, biliousness, and ear complaints; dried flowers used as a fomentation in
|
||
orchitis. Fried flowers are eaten by people suffering from piles. Mahua flowers show anti
|
||
bacterial activity aginst Escherichia coli. The edible honey from the flowers is reported to
|
||
be used for eye diseases. Liquor made from the flowers used as an astringent and a tonic.
|
||
Mahua leaves are astringent, used in embrocations. Fruit used for bronchitis, consumption,
|
||
and blood diseases; seeds are galactagogue.
|
||
Chemistry — Per 100 g, the inflorescence (ZMB) is reported to contain 5.0 g protein,
|
||
1.8 g fat, 89.0 g total carbohydrate, 1.6 g fiber, 4.2 g ash, 130 mg Ca, and 120 mg P. Per
|
||
100 g, the leaf (ZMB) is reported to contain 9.1 g protein, 3.9 g fat, 79.4 g total carbohydrate,
|
||
19.0 g fiber, 7.6 g ash, 1460 mg Ca, and 210 mg P.®^ An insoluble gum from incisions on
|
||
the trunk contains 48.9% gutta, 38.8% resin, and 12.3% ash. Bark contains 17% tannin.
|
||
The wood contains naphthaquinone, lapachol, and alpha- and beta-lapachones; the essential
|
||
oil from the fruit pulp contains ethyl cinnamate, alpha-terpineol, and a sesquiterpene fraction.
|
||
Myricetin and myricetin-3-O-L-rhamnoside has been isolated from the leaves.In addition.
|
||
The Wealth of India^^ reports 51.1% fatty oil, 8.0% protein, 27.9% N-free extract, 10.3%
|
||
fiber, and 2.7% ash in an analysis of the seed kernel. Senaratne et al.^®^ report the fatty
|
||
acid components of the seed oil to be 23% palmitic, 15% stearic, 46% oleic, 14% linoleic,
|
||
and traces of linolenic acids. The glyceride structure of the oil is reported to be 1% dipalmito-
|
||
stearins, 1% oleo-dipalmitins, 27% oleo-palmitostearins, 41% palmito-dioleins, and 30%
|
||
stearodioleins. The Wealth of India'^^ reports the values are trace trisaturated, 47% mono-
|
||
unsaturated-disaturated, 36% mono-saturated-diunsaturated, and 17% tri-unsaturated. Per
|
||
100 g, the corollas are reported to contain 18.6% moisture, 4.4% protein, 0.5% fat, 72.9%
|
||
total sugars, 1.7% fiber, 2.7% ash, 140 mg P, 140 mg Ca, and 15 mg Fe; magnesium and
|
||
copper are present. The sugars are identified as sucrose, maltose, glucose, fructose, ara-
|
||
binose, and rhamnose. Corollas also contain 39 lU carotene, 7 mg ascorbic acid, 37 |xg
|
||
thiamine, 878 |xg riboflavin, and 5.2 mg niacin per 100 g. Folic acid, pantothenic acid,
|
||
biotin, and inositol are also present. Corollas also contain an essential oil, anthocyanins,
|
||
betaine, and salts of malic and succinic acids. The ripe fruits, per 100 g, are reported to
|
||
contain 73.64% moisture, 1.37% protein, 1.61% fat, 22.69% carbohydrates, 0.69% mineral
|
||
matter, 45 mg Ca, 22 mg P, 1.1 mg Fe, 512 lU carotene, and 40.5 mg ascorbic acid; tannins
|
||
are present. The oil contains 22.7% ethyl cinnamate, 3.5% alpha-terpineol, and 67.9%
|
||
sesquiterpene and sesquiterpene alcohol. The green leaves contain 78.95% moisture, 19.60%
|
||
212 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
organic matter, 0.43% N, 1.45% mineral matter, 0.43% potash (K2O), 0.087% phosphoric
|
||
acid (P2O5). and 0.10% silica. Analysis of samples of coagulum from incisions made in the
|
||
bark show 12.2 to 19.9% caoutchouc, 48.9 to 75.8% resin, and 11.9 to 38.9%
|
||
insolubles.
|
||
Toxicity — According to Burkill,^^ there is a saponin or sapo-glucoside in the seeds
|
||
which has a destructive action on the blood. Awasthi et al.^'^ report the presence of a bitter
|
||
glucosidic principle from mahua seed that was shown to possess digitalis-like action on frog
|
||
heart. Over-consumption of mahua flowers is reported to cause vomiting and stomach
|
||
disorders. ;2^
|
||
Description — Large deciduous tree, 13 to 17 m tall, with a short trunk and numerous
|
||
spreading branches forming a dense rounded crown. Leaves elliptic to linear-lanceolate, 8
|
||
to 20 cm long, 3 to 4.5 cm wide, tapering to base, glabrous when mature, clustered at ends
|
||
of branches. Flowers small, in dense clusters of 30 to 50 at ends of branches; corolla tubular,
|
||
1.5 cm long, yellowish to cream-colored, thick, fleshy, globe-shaped, enclosed at the base
|
||
in a velvety chocolate-brown calyx. Fruit an ovoid berry up to 5 cm long, yellow when
|
||
ripe. Seeds 1 to 4, yellow to brown, ovoid, shining, 2.5 to 3 cm long, kernel about 70%
|
||
by weight of seed and containing 35 to 40% of a greenish grease (fat-oil). Trees shed their
|
||
leaves in February, and flowers appear in March and April, at which time the ground beneath
|
||
the trees is carefully cleared. Flowers March to April; fruits May to June.^^^
|
||
Germplasm — Reported from the Hindustani Center of Diversity, mahua, or cvs thereof,
|
||
is reported to tolerate drought, frost, insects, poor soil, slope, savanna, and waterlogging.®^
|
||
According to The W ealth o f India van Royen revised the taxonomy and nomenclature of
|
||
the genus M adhuca of the Malaysian area. He merged M . indica and M . longifolia under
|
||
the latter name and distinguished two varieties, var. longifolia and var. latifolia.'^^
|
||
Distribution — Native to southern India. Although it grows spontaneously in some parts,
|
||
it is extensively cultivated throughout India and Sri Lanka.
|
||
Ecology — Ranging from Warm Temperate Moist through Tropical Very Dry to Moist
|
||
Forest Life Zones, mahua is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 7.0 to 40.3 dm (mean
|
||
of 4 cases = 17.7), annual temperatures of 24.2 to 27.5°C (mean of 4 cases = 25.4°C),
|
||
and pH of 5.0 to 7.5 (mean of 3 cases = 6.6).®^ Mahua, usually drought-resistant, is
|
||
especially suited for dry or waste lands where little else will grow. Trees thrive on dry,
|
||
stony ground in all parts of India, and are protected by the natives. Trees are frost-hardy,
|
||
but do suffer from severe conditions. It is sometimes found in waterlogged or low-lying
|
||
clayey and shallow soils. Requires full sun and is readily suppressed by shade. When cut
|
||
in dry season, plants coppice well, but not during the rainy season.^^®
|
||
Cultivation — In southern India, trees are frequently cultivated as an avenue tree. Seeds
|
||
may germinate naturally during the rainy season, soon after falling, where earth is washed
|
||
into small hollows. Subsequent growth is slow, but is favored by sunlight. For artificial
|
||
propagation, seeds are sown directly or for transplant. Fresh seeds are sown in July and
|
||
August, in prepared lines or patches. Transplanting may be risky due to the long, delicate
|
||
taproots. In India, seeds are sown directly in deep containers or the seedlings transplanted
|
||
into them from the nursery during the first rainy season a few weeks after germination.
|
||
Young trees are frequently intercropped with annual crops, at least during the first 10 to 15
|
||
years. ^^®
|
||
Harvesting — Under favorable soil and climatic conditions, mahua trees begin to bear
|
||
fruit in 8 to 10 years after planting, and continue to do so for over 60 years. Corollas fall
|
||
in great showers in early morning to the previously cleaned ground, from about the end of
|
||
March until the end of April. They are collected by women and children and spread out on
|
||
mats to dry in the sun, shrinking to about one-half their weight and turning reddish-brown.
|
||
Sometimes flowers are collected before they drop; in some places it is the practice to remove
|
||
only the corolla, leaving the pistil to ripen to a fruit. Harvest period is 7 to 10 days for a
|
||
213
|
||
single tree. Flowers, when dried, are sold to distilleries, where they are immersed in water
|
||
for about 4 days, allowed to ferment and thereafter distilled. The spirit, somewhat similar
|
||
to Irish whiskey, has a strong, smokey, and rather fetid flavor, improved by aging, producing
|
||
a strong palatable drink. One ton of dried flowers produces ca. 90 gal of 95% ethyl alcohol.
|
||
Fruits may occur in alternate years. Fruits fall from tree when ripe or may be dropped by
|
||
shaking the branches. Season for collecting is short, from May to June, but may be extended
|
||
until December in southern India. Seeds are separated from the smooth chestnut-brown
|
||
pericarp by bruising, rubbing, or subjecting them to moderate pressure. Then they are dried
|
||
and shelled to get the kernel, these constituting the Mahua seed of commerce. Mahua oil
|
||
is extracted by cold expression; the yield of oil, depending on the efficiency of equipment,
|
||
varies from 20 to 43%, the highest gotten when extracted by solvents. In Central India,
|
||
kernels are pounded, boiled, wrapped in several folds of cloth, and then the oil is expressed.
|
||
Fresh Mahua Oil from properly stored seeds is yellow with a disagreeable odor. In warmer
|
||
areas, the oil is a liquid; in cold weather or areas, it solidifies to a buttery consistency.
|
||
Mahua cake from seeds is used as a manure, alone or mixed with mineral fertilizers, or
|
||
made into a compost with sawdust, cane trash, or bagasse, about 3 months being required
|
||
for nitrification of the cake. Quantities (1,000 to 1,750 tons) of this compost are exported
|
||
from India to Sri Lanka and Britian annually. Mahua cake also has insecticidal and piscicidal
|
||
properties, and is applied to lawns and golf courses against earth worms.
|
||
Y ield s and E con om ics — Trees require about 20 years to attain full production of flowers
|
||
and seeds; an average tree producing from 90 to 125 kg of flowers per year. Mahua is
|
||
essentially a forest crop. Still, the total amount of seeds collected in the forest is less than
|
||
from trees in semi-cultivated areas. An estimated 7 million trees in India produce about
|
||
100,000 tons of seed per year. India is the principal producer of all products of mahua, and
|
||
the bulk of the crop is consumed locally. Some products are exported to Belgium, Germany,
|
||
France, and Britain. Indian mills convert 15,000 to 30,000 tons of seeds into oil annually.
|
||
E n ergy — A good fuel wood, it is hard and heavy, specific gravity approximately 0.95
|
||
to 0.97. Pruning, perhaps amounting to 2 to 4 MT ha, could be used for firewood. Sap wood
|
||
has a calorific value of 4,890 to 4,978 calories (8,802 to 8,962 Btu); heartwood, 5,005 to
|
||
5,224 calories (9,010 to 9,404 Btu). Seed oil (20 to 43%) could be used for diesel substitution,
|
||
the press-cake converted to power alcohol. Assuming 100 trees per ha and 1(X) kg flowers
|
||
per tree, one might expect 900 gallons (>20 barrels) ethanol per hectare.
|
||
B iotic factors — Trees are damaged by loranthaceous parasites. Mahua trees are affected
|
||
by several fungi: S copella (U rom yces) echinulata (rust), P olystictus steinheilianus (white
|
||
spongy rot). P om es caryoph ylli (heart rot of stems), and P olyporus gilvus (root and butt
|
||
rot). Leaves are eaten by caterpillars: A chaea ja n a ta , A nuga m ultiplicans, B om boletia nu-
|
||
gatrix, M etanastria hyrtaca, and R hodoneura s p p ., A crocercops spp. (leaf-miners); the bark
|
||
is destroyed by O donoterm es obesus, C optoterm es ceylanicus, and K aloterm es sp. (white
|
||
ants) and X yloctonu s scolytoides (bark borers); sap wood of dead trees is damaged by Schis-
|
||
toceros an abioides and X ylocis tortilicornis (ghoon borers).Also attacked by the sap-
|
||
sucker U naspis acum inata In addition, Browne^^ lists Angiospermae: D en drophthoe fa l-
|
||
cata; Lepidoptera: O phiusa ja n a ta .
|
||
214 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
MORINGA OLEIFERA Lam. (MORINGACEAE) — Horseradish-Tree, Benzolive Tree,
|
||
Drumstick-Tree, Sohnja, Moringa, Murunga-Kai
|
||
Syn.: Moringa pterygosperma Gaertn., Moringa nux-ben Perr., Guilandina moringa L.
|
||
Uses — Described as “ one of the most amazing trees God has created” .A lm o st every
|
||
part of the Moringa is said to be of value for food. Seed is said to be eaten like a peanut
|
||
in Malaya. Thickened root used as substitute for horseradish. Foliage eaten as greens, in
|
||
salads, in vegetable curries, as pickles and for seasoning. Leaves pounded up and used for
|
||
scrubbing utensils and for cleaning walls. Flowers are said to make a satisfactory vegetable;
|
||
interesting particularly in subtropical places like Florida, where it is said to be the only tree
|
||
species that flowers every day of the year. Flowers good for honey production. Young pods
|
||
cooked as a vegetable. Seeds yield 38 to 40% of a nondrying oil, known as Ben Oil, used
|
||
in arts and for lubricating watches and other delicate machinery. Haitians obtain the oil by
|
||
crushing browned seeds and boiling in water. Oil is clear, sweet and odorless, said never
|
||
to become rancid (not true, according to Ramachandran et al.).^®"^ It is edible and used in
|
||
the manufacture of perfumes and hairdressings. Wood yields blue dye. Leaves and young
|
||
branches are relished by livestock. Commonly planted in Africa as a living fence (Hausa)
|
||
tree. Ochse^^® notes an interesting agroforestry application; the thin crown throws a slight
|
||
shade on kitchen gardens, which is “ more useful than detrimental to the plants” . Trees
|
||
planted on graves are believed to keep away hyenas and its branches are used as charms
|
||
against witchcraft. In Taiwan, treelets are spaced 15 cm apart to make a living fence, the
|
||
top of which is lopped off for the calcium- and iron-rich foliage.Bark can serve for
|
||
tanning; it also yields a coarse fiber. Trees are being studied as pulpwood sources in India.
|
||
Analyses by Mahajan and Sharma^®^ indicate that the tree is a suitable raw material for
|
||
producing high alpha-cellulose pulps for use in cellophane and textiles. In rural Sudan,
|
||
powdered seeds of the tree Moringa oleifera are used to purify drinking water by coagulation.
|
||
In trials, the powder was toxic to guppies (Poecilia reticulata)^ protozoa {Tetrahymena
|
||
pyriformis), and bacteria {Escherichia coli), and it inhibited acetylcholinesterase. It had no
|
||
215
|
||
effect on coliphages, lactic dehydrogenase, or invertase, and the equivalent of cotyledon
|
||
powder up to 1000 mg/liter had no mutagenic effect on salmonella. Pericarp had no effect.
|
||
Powdered cotyledon at 5 mg/liter affected oxygen uptake of T. pyriformis, 30 to 40 mg/liter
|
||
disturbed locomotion of guppies, and the 96-H LC50 for guppies was 196 mg/liter. Toxic
|
||
effects may have been due to 4(alpha-1-rhamnosyloxy) benzyl isothiocyanate, a glycosidic
|
||
mustard oil. The toxin seemed not to be a danger to the health of man, at least not in the
|
||
concentrations present during the use of the seeds for nutrition, medicine, or water purifi
|
||
cation.^®^ For the low-turbidity waters of the Blue Nile, only a quarter seed per liter of water
|
||
is required, for moderately turbid water, half a seed, and for fully turbid, 1 to 1.5 seeds
|
||
per liter. Such seed are hulled, crushed, and reduced to a powder.
|
||
Folk Medicine — According to Hartwell,the flowers, leaves, and roots are used in
|
||
folk remedies for tumors, the seed for abdominal tumors. Reported to be abortifacient,
|
||
antidote (centipede, scorpion, spider), bactericide, cholagog, depurative, diuretic, ecbolic,
|
||
emetic, estrogenic, expectorant, purgative, rubefacient, stimulant, tonic, vermifuge, and
|
||
vesicant — horseradish-tree is a folk remedy for adenopathy, ascites, asthma, baldness,
|
||
boils, bums, catarrh, cholera, cold, convulsion, dropsy, dysentery, dysuria, earache, epi
|
||
lepsy, erysipelas, faintness, fever, gout, gravel, hematuria, hysteria, inflammation, madness,
|
||
maggots, neuralgia, palsy, pneumonia, rheumatism, scabies, scrofula, scurvy, skin ailments,
|
||
snakebite, sores, spasms, splenitis, sterility (female), syphilis, toothache, tumors, ulcers,
|
||
vertigo, wounds, and yellow-fever.^^ The root decoction is used in Nicaragua for dropsy.
|
||
Root juice is applied externally as mbefacient or counter-irritant. Leaves applied as poultice
|
||
to sores, mbbed on the temples for headaches, and said to have purgative properties. Bark,
|
||
leaves, and roots are acrid and pungent, and are taken to promote digestion. Oil is somewhat
|
||
dangerous if taken internally, but is applied externally for skin diseases. Bark, regarded as
|
||
antiscorbutic, exudes a reddish gum with properties of tragacanth; sometimes used for
|
||
diarrhea. Bitter roots act as a tonic to the body and lungs, and are emmenagogue, expectorant,
|
||
mild diuretic, and stimulant in paralytic afflictions, epilepsy, and hysteria. Other medicinal
|
||
uses are suggested in Kirtikar and Basu,^^^ Morton,and Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk.^^^
|
||
Chemistry — Per 100 g, the pod is reported to contain 86.9 g H2O, 2.5 g protein, 0.1
|
||
g fat, 8.5 g total carbohydrate, 4.8 g fiber, 2.0 g ash, 30 mg Ca, 110 mg P, 5.3 mg Fe,
|
||
184 lU Vitamin A, 0.2 mg niacin, and 120 mg ascorbic acid, 310 |xg Cu, 1.8 |xg I. Young
|
||
pods contain indoleacetic acid and indole acetonitrile.^®® Leaves contain 75 g H2O, 6.7 g
|
||
protein, 1.7 g fat, 14.3 g total carbohydrate, 0.9 g fiber, 2.3 g ash, 440 mg Ca, 70 mg P,
|
||
7 mg Fe, 110 |xg Cu, 5.1 |xg I, 11,300 lU Vitamin A, 120 |xg Vitamin B, 0.8 mg nicotinic
|
||
acid, 220 mg ascorbic acid, and 7.4 mg tocopherol per 100 g. On a ZMB, leaf curries
|
||
contain 25.8 ppm thiamin, 7.26 ppm riboflavin, and 35 ppm niacin.^®^ If ascorbic acid is
|
||
the target, leaves should be gathered before flowering and consumed quickly. Estrogenic
|
||
substances, including the antitumor compound, beta-sitosterol, and a pectinesterase are also
|
||
reported. Leaf amino acids include 6.0 g arginine per 16 g N, 2.1 histidine, 4.3 lysine, 1.9
|
||
tryptophane, 6.4 phenylalanine, 2.0 methionine, 4.9 threonine, 9.3 lucine, 6.3 isoleucine,
|
||
and 7.1 valine. Pod amino acids include 3.6 g arginine per 16 g N, 1.1 g histidine, 1.5 g
|
||
lysine, 0.8 g tryptophane, 4.3 g phenylalanine, 1.4 g methionine, 3.9 g threonine, 6.5 g
|
||
leucine, 4.4 g, isoleucine, and 5.4 valine. Seed kernel (70 to 74% of seed) contains 4.08
|
||
g H2O, 38.4 g crude protein, 34.7 g fatty oil, 16.4 g N free extract, 3.5 g fiber, and 3.2 g
|
||
ash. Seeds contain 100 ppm Vitamin E and 140 ppm beta-carotene.^^ The seed oil contains
|
||
9.3% palmitic, 7.4% stearic, 8.6% behenic, and 65.7% oleic acids among the fatty acids.
|
||
(Myristic and lignoceric acids have also been reported.) The cake left after oil extraction
|
||
contains 58.9% crude protein, 0.4% CaO, 1.1% P2O5 and 0.8% K2O. Gums exuding from
|
||
the trunks contain L-arabinose, D-galactose, D-glucuronic acid, L-rhamnose, and D-xylose.^^^
|
||
Pterygospermin (C22H18O2N2S2), a bactericidal and fungicidal compound, isolated from
|
||
Moringa has an LD50 subcutaneously injected in mice and rats of 350 to 400 mg/kg body
|
||
216 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
weight. It might serve as a fruit- and vegetable preservative. In low concentrations, it protects
|
||
mice against staphylococcus infections.^® Root-bark yields two alkaloids: moringine and
|
||
moringinine. Moringinine acts as a cardiac stimulant, produces rise of blood-pressure, acts
|
||
on sympathetic nerve-endings as well as smooth muscles all over the body, and depresses
|
||
the sympathetic motor fibers of vessels in large doses only. The root alkaloid, spirochin,
|
||
paralyzes the vagus nerve, hinders infection, and has antimycotic and analgesic activity. In
|
||
doses of 15 g, the root bark is abortifacient.^^^
|
||
Description — Short, slender, deciduous, perennial tree, to about 10 m tall; rather slender
|
||
with drooping branches; branches and stems brittle, with corky bark. Leaves feathery, pale-
|
||
green, compound, tripinnate, 30 to 60 cm long, with many small leaflets, 1.3 to 2 cm long,
|
||
0.6 to 0.3 cm wide, lateral ones somewhat elliptic, terminal one obovate and slightly larger
|
||
than the lateral ones; flowers fragrant, white or creamy-white, 2.5 cm in diameter, borne
|
||
in sprays, with 5 sepals, 5 petals; stamens yellow. Pods pendulous, brown, triangular,
|
||
splitting lengthwise into 3 parts when dry, 30 to 120 cm long, 1.8 cm wide, containing
|
||
about 20 seeds embedded in the pith, pod tapering at both ends, 9-ribbed. Seeds 1 to 2 cm
|
||
wide, dark-brown, with 3 papery wings. Main root thick. Fruit production in March and
|
||
April in Sri Lanka.
|
||
Germplasm — Reported from the African and Hindustani Centers of Diversity, Moringa
|
||
or CVS thereof is reported to tolerate bacteria, drought, fungus, laterite, mycobacteria, and
|
||
sand.*^ Several cvs are grown: ‘Bombay’ is considered one of the best, with curly fruits.
|
||
Others have the fruits 3-angled or about round in cross-section. In India, ‘Jaffna’ is noted
|
||
for having fruits 60 to 90 cm, ‘Chavakacheri murunga’ 90 to 120 cm long. (2n = 28.)
|
||
Distribution — Native to India, Arabia, and possibly Africa and the East Indies; widely
|
||
cultivated and naturalized in tropical Africa, tropical America, Sri Lanka, India, Mexico,
|
||
Malabar, Malaysia, and the Philippine Islands.
|
||
Ecology — Ranging from Subtropical Dry to Moist through Tropical Very Dry to Moist
|
||
Forest Life Zones, Moringa is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 4.8 to 40.3 cm
|
||
(mean of 53 cases = 14.1) annual temperature of 18.7 to 28.5°C (mean of 48 cases =
|
||
25.4) and pH of 4.5 to 8. (mean of 12 cases = 6.5). Thrives in subtropical and tropical
|
||
climates, flowering and fruiting freely and continuously. Grows best on a dry sandy soil,
|
||
but grows “ in all types of soils, except stiff clays’’.^® Drought resistant.
|
||
Cultivation — In India, the plant is propagated by planting limb cuttings 1 to 2 m long,
|
||
from June to August, preferably. The plant starts bearing pods 6 to 8 months after planting,
|
||
but regular bearing commences after the second year. The tree bears for several years.
|
||
Harvesting — Fruit or other parts of the plant are usually harvested as desired, according
|
||
to some authors; but in India, fruiting may peak between March and April and again in
|
||
September and October. Seed gathered in March and April and oil expressed.
|
||
Yields and economics — I feel, from personal observations, that Moringa’s biomass and
|
||
pod production should approach that of Prosopis growing in the same habitat. A single tree,
|
||
3 years old, can yield more than 600 pods per year, or up to 1000."^® A single fruit will have
|
||
ca. 20 seeds, each averaging 300 mg, suggesting a seed yield of 6 kg per tree, an oil yield
|
||
conservatively of 2 kg per tree. Such could be very useful in poor developing countries
|
||
which import vegetable oils. I would suggest a target yield of about 10 MT pods per hectare.
|
||
Horseradish-tree is grown locally in India, Sri Lanka, and elsewhere, and is consumed as
|
||
a local product, either ripe or unripe.
|
||
Energy — According to Verma et al.,^^® “ saijan” is a fast-growing tree being planted
|
||
in India on a large scale as a potential source of wood for the paper industry. At Fort Meyers,
|
||
Florida, trees attain ca. 5 m height 10 months after seed is planted.It seems doubtful that
|
||
the wood and seed oil could both be viewed as fountains of energy. According to Burkill,^^
|
||
“ The seeds yield a clear inodorous oil to the extent of 22 to 38.5%. It bums with a clear
|
||
light and without smoke. It is an excellent salad oil, and gives a good soap . . . It can be
|
||
217
|
||
used for oiling machinery, and indeed has a reputation for this purpose as watch oil, but is
|
||
now superseded by sperm oil.” Sharing rather similar habitat requirements with the jojoba
|
||
under certain circumstances, perhaps it might be investigated as a substitute for sperm whale
|
||
oil like jojoba. Growing readily from cuttings, the ben oil could be readily produced where
|
||
jojoba grows. Coming into bearing within two years, it could easily be compared to jojoba
|
||
in head-on trials. I recommend such.
|
||
Biotic factors — Fruitflies (Gitona spp.) have infested the fruits which then dried out at
|
||
the tip and rotted.Leaves of young plants and freshly planted stumps are attacked by
|
||
several species of weevils {Myllocerus discolor var. variegatus, M. 1 l-pustulatus, M. ten-
|
||
uiclavis, M. viridanus and Ptochus ovulum). Also parasitized by the flowering plant, Den-
|
||
drophthoe flacata. Fungi which attack the horseradish-tree include: Cercospora moringicola
|
||
(Leaf-spot), Sphaceloma morindae (Spot anthracnose), Puccinia moringae (rust), Oidium
|
||
sp., Polyporus gilvus, and Leveillula taurica (Papaya powdery mildew).
|
||
218 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
N ELU M BO NUCIFERA Gaertn. (NELUMBONACEAE) Sacred Lotus, Lotus Root, Indian
|
||
Lotus, Hasu
|
||
Syn.: Nymphaea nelumbo L., Nelumbo nelumbo (L.) Karst., Nelumbium nelumbo
|
||
(L.) Druce, Nelumbium speciosum Willd.
|
||
Uses — Rhizomes and seeds of the sacred lotus are frequently used for food, especially
|
||
in the Orient. The small scale-like leaves on the rootstock, up to 30 cm long, are used as
|
||
food in some countries. Plants are grown by Chinese and Japanese for the edible tubers,
|
||
which are used much like sweet potatoes, roasted, steamed, or pickled. In China, a type of
|
||
arrowroot is prepared from the rhizomes. Leaves may be eaten raw as a vegetable in salads.
|
||
Fruits can be eaten after the seeds are removed. Flowering stalks are eaten as a vegetable.
|
||
Seeds are usually boiled or roasted after removing the bitter-tasting embryo, or eaten
|
||
r a w 209,278.283
|
||
Folk medicine — According to Hartwell,the lotus is used in folk remedies for corns.
|
||
219
|
||
calluses, and tumors, and/or indurations of the abdomen, cervix, ear, limbs, kidney, liver,
|
||
and spleen. In China, the leaf juice is used for diarrhea or decocted with licorice for sunstroke
|
||
or vertigo. Flowers decocted, alone or with roses, for premature ejaculation. Floral receptacle
|
||
decocted for abdominal cramps, bloody discharge, metrorrhagia, and non-expulsion of am-
|
||
niotic sac. Fruit decocted for agitation, fever, heart, and hematemesis. Seed used for diarrhea,
|
||
enteritis, insomnia, metrorrhagia, neurasthenia, nightmare, spermatorrhea, splenitis, leu-
|
||
corrhea, and seminal emissions. The nourishing seeds are believed useful in preserving
|
||
health and strength, and promoting circulation. Root starch given for diarrhea, dysentery,
|
||
dyspepsia, the tonic paste applied to ringworm and other skin ailments. Plant refrigerant in
|
||
smallpox, said to stop eruptions. Antidote to alcohol and mushroom. Honey from bee visitors
|
||
is considered tonic; used for eye ailments. The embryo is used for cholera, fever, hemoptysis,
|
||
spermatorrhea. Knotty pieces of rootstock used for épistaxis, dysentery, hematemesis, he-
|
||
matochezia, hematuria, hemoptysis, and metrorrhagia. Cotyledons believed to promote vi
|
||
rility and alleviate leucorrhea and gonorrhea. Stamens said to purify the heart, permeate the
|
||
kidneys, strengthen the virility, blacken the hair, make joyful the countenance, benefit the
|
||
blood and check hemorrhages; for hemoptysis, spermatorrhea.^ According to Kirtikar and
|
||
Basu,‘^^ nearly every part of the plant has a distinct name and economic use. Ayurvedics
|
||
use the whole plant to give tone to the breast, and to correct biliousness, fever, nausea,
|
||
strangury, thirst, and worms. They use the root for biliousness, body heat, cough, and thirst,
|
||
the stem for blood disorders, leprosy, nausea, and strangury, the leaves for burning sen
|
||
sations, leprosy, piles, strangury, and thirst, the flower for biliousness, blood defects, cough,
|
||
eyes, fever, poisoning, skin eruptions, and thirst, the “ aphrodisiac” anthers in bleeding
|
||
piles, diarrhea, inflammations, mouth sores, poisoning, thirst, and as a uterine sedative, the
|
||
fruit for blood impurities, halitosis, and thirst, the “ aphrodisiac” seeds for burning sensa
|
||
tions, diarrhea, dysentery, leprosy, nausea, and to strengthen the body, and the honey as
|
||
an excellent tonic, useful in eye diseases. Yunani employ the diuretic root in chest pain,
|
||
leucoderma, smallpox, spermatorrhea, and throat ailments, the flower for bronchitis, internal
|
||
ailments, thirst, and watery eyes, and as a tonic for the brain and heart, the seeds for chest
|
||
complaints, fevers, leucorrhea, menorrhagia, and as a uterine tonic.
|
||
Chemistry — Per 100 g, the seed (ZMB) is reported to contain 318 to 390 calories, 16.6
|
||
to 24.2 g protein, 1.0 to 2.7 g fat, 70.2 to 76.2 g total carbohydrate, 2.5 to 13.1 g fiber,
|
||
4.5 to 5.2 g ash, 139 to 330 mg Ca, 298 to 713 mg P, 6.1 to 7.1 mg Fe, 17.4 to 49.0 mg
|
||
Na, 942 to 1665 mg K, 0 to 35 jxg beta-carotene equivalent, 0.65 to 0.75 mg thiamine,
|
||
0.18 to 0.26 mg riboflavin, 1.9 to 7.8 mg niacin, and 0 to 44 mg ascorbic acid. The rhizome
|
||
(ZMB) contains 16.7 mg protein, 0.6 g fat, 74.1 g total carbohydrate, 4.9 g fiber, 6.8 g
|
||
ash, 370 mg Ca, 1.36 mg thiamine, 0.37 mg riboflavin, 12.96 mg niacin, and 93 mg ascorbic
|
||
acid.®^ Saline extracts bacteriostatic. Extracts show antitumor activity, vindicating its herbal
|
||
anticancer reputation. Liriodenine is active in the KB tumor system, oxoushinsunine, cy
|
||
totoxic; nuciferine and nomuciferine, antispasmodic. Anonaine, armepavine, demethylco-
|
||
claurine, gluconic acid, isoliensinine, liensenine, liriodenine, lotusine, D-N-methylcoclaurine,
|
||
neferin, nelumboside, N-nomuciferine, nomuciferine, nuciferine, pronuciferine, quercitin,
|
||
and roemerine are reported.Hagers Handbook^®^ mentions quercetin, isoquercitrin, leu-
|
||
cocyanidin, and leucodelphinidin from the leaves, quercetin, isoquercitrin, luteolin, glu-
|
||
coluteolin, kaempferol, and robinin in the petals and stamens. Seeds contain the active beta-
|
||
sitosterol and related esters, as well as glutathione, the embryo containing methylcorypalline
|
||
(a coronary dilator^'^O» luteolin-7-glucoside, mtin, and hyperoside. Raffmose and stachyose
|
||
have been isolated from the rhizome, ( + )catechin, ( + )-gallocatechin, neochlorogenic acid,
|
||
gallocatechin, leucocyanidin, and leucodelphinidin from the roots.H su et al.^"^^ add the
|
||
cardiotonic alkaloid higenamine. Is it a wonder that a chemistry set like this is considered
|
||
sacred in some parts of the world?
|
||
Description — Perennial rhizomatous herbaceous aquatic, from a stout, creeping root
|
||
220 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
stock 10 to 20 m long, branching, bearing numerous scale-like leaves as well as foliage
|
||
leaves, with milky juice; leaves blue-green with a silvery sheen, waterproof, peltate, circular,
|
||
up to 90 cm in diameter, concave, on petioles up to 1 m long above water, margins raised
|
||
upwards, the leaf-stalks and flower-stalks 1 to 2 m tall, hollow, with small scattered prickles;
|
||
flowers borne singly at ends of stalks, opening on three successive days before fading,
|
||
fragrant, extending above the leaves on long cylindrical stems; flowers 10 to 26 cm in
|
||
diameter, sepals 4 to 5, green caducous, inserted at base of receptacle, petals numerous,
|
||
rose-red to white, free, obovate, obtuse, 8 to 12 cm long, 3 to 7 cm broad, anthers linear,
|
||
yellow, 15 to 20 mm long, the filaments linear, 7 to 25 mm long; receptacle spongy, in
|
||
fruit in 10 cm high and wide, flat, the nuts (seeds) embedded within; nuts 2.0 cm by 1.3
|
||
cm, ovoid to ellipsoidal, brown to blackish, protruding like knobs, without endosperm, with
|
||
a hard pericarp. Flowers June to August.
|
||
Germplasm — Reported from the Near Eastern Center of Diversity, sacred lotus, or cvs
|
||
thereof, is reported to tolerate bacteria, frost, and waterlogging.®^ Many varieties are cul
|
||
tivated in various parts of the world. Some of the best known cvs are album grandiflorum;
|
||
album plenum (‘Shiroman’, with double white flowers 30 cm across); kermesinum (light
|
||
rose); kinshiren (white shaded pink); osiris (deep rose); pulchrum (dark rosy-red); pekinese
|
||
rubrum (rosy-carmine); roseum (rosy-pink); plenum (large and double); pygmaeum (dwarf).
|
||
Seeds known to be 200 years old have been germinated from collections in dry Gobi Desert
|
||
lakes, plants of these are now being grown in the Kenilworth Aquatic Gardens in Washington,
|
||
D.C.^^® Priestley and Posthumus^^® describe viable Manchurian seed radiocarbon dated as
|
||
over 450 (ca. 466) years old. (2n = 16.)
|
||
Distribution — Native from the southern border of the Caspian Sea to Manchuria, south
|
||
throughout the warmer parts of India, Pakistan, China, Iran, Japan, and Australia. It is
|
||
cultivated in some Mediterranean countries and is naturalized in Rumania. It was commer
|
||
cially introduced in the U.S. about 1876; it has now become naturalized.^^®
|
||
Ecology — Ranging from Warm Temperate Dry to Moist through Tropical Very Dry to
|
||
Moist Forest Life Zones, sacred lotus is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 6.4 to
|
||
40.3 dm (mean of 11 cases = 14.2), annual temperature of 14.4 to 27.5°C (mean of 11
|
||
cases = 19.6°C), and pH of 5.0 to 7.5 (mean of 10 cases = 6.2).®^ Lotus thrives with
|
||
plenty of sunshine and rich soil. The rhizomes grow in mud at the bottom of water, 60 to
|
||
90 cm deep. They require a minimum winter temperature above freezing. A good soil would
|
||
contain two parts loam and one part well-decayed manure. Once set, the plants flower freely.
|
||
Unless the roots are frozen, they are not harmed by the cold.^^®
|
||
Cultivation — Sacred lotus may be propagated from seed, sown in shallow pans of sandy
|
||
soil, immersed in water tanks heated to 15°C. Seedlings are allowed to grow in the seed
|
||
pans until large enough to plant out in tubs or ponds. When seeds are sown directly in ponds
|
||
or pools, they are rolled in a ball of clay and dropped in the water. The hard seeds germinate
|
||
better if scarified by boring or filing. Plants may be propagated by sections of the rhizomes
|
||
placed in large tubs or pools, indoors or outdoors. Divisions of the tubers may also be used
|
||
similarly. From 30 to 45 cm of compost is placed in a vessel, or tubs may be filled with
|
||
soil and submerged so that the soil surface is 18 to 30 cm below water level. Planting should
|
||
be in spring when weather has definitely warmed. Plants will grow in ponds or larger bodies
|
||
of water, as well as in tubs or half-barrels. Tubers may also be planted in late spring just
|
||
before they start new growth, in rich soil in the bottom of a pond, in water 30 to 90 cm
|
||
deep. If rhizomes are covered with sufficient water to prevent them from freezing (about
|
||
90 cm), they will over winter satisfactorily. If water is not deep enough to prevent the
|
||
rhizomes from freezing, the pool should be drained in the fall, the tubs removed to a cellar
|
||
or some place where the temperature is maintained about 1 to 8°C, or the plants should be
|
||
covered with 1 m or so leaves, hay, or straw and left outdoors for the winter.^^®’^®^
|
||
Harvesting — Parts are harvested when available or needed.^^®
|
||
221
|
||
Yields and economics — Commercially, only the rhizomes are sold in shops and markets
|
||
in southeastern Asia.^^® Duke®^ reports rhizome yields of 4.6 MT/ha.
|
||
Energy — This aquatic plant seems better viewed as an edible ornamental rather than a
|
||
vigorous biomass candidate. I don’t find it recommended (like the water hyacinth and cattail,
|
||
for example) by the champions of aquatics for energy.
|
||
Biotic factors — Sacred lotus is attacked by several fungi: A ltern aría nelum bii, A. tenuis,
|
||
C ercospora nelum bii, Fusarium bulbigenum , G loeosporium nelum bii, M acrosporium neF
|
||
umbii, M yrothecium roridum , Phom a nelum bii, P h yllosticta nelum bonis, P hysoderm a n el
|
||
umbii, and Sclerotium rolfsii. It is also attacked by B acillus nelum bii.
|
||
222 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
NYPA FRUTICANS Wurmb. (ARECACEAE) — Nipa Palm
|
||
Uses — Menninger^^ summarizes that the palm supplies roofing, thatching, baskets,
|
||
matting, cigarette wrappers, fuel, alcohol, sugar, toddy, and other products. Also useful for
|
||
stabilizing soils in tidal terrain. The nut is jelly-like at first, becoming nutty, and finally so
|
||
hard as to require grating or pounding for eating raw.^®^ The tender palm hearts are eaten
|
||
as a vegetable. Leaves are much valued for thatching, basketry, and mats. Umbrellas, sun-
|
||
hats, raincoats, mats, and bags are made from the leaves in the Philippine Islands. Midribs
|
||
are used for making coarse brooms and as fuel. Young unexpanded leaves are used as
|
||
cigarette wrappers. Leaflets, with 10.2% tannin and 15.2% hard-tans are used for tanning
|
||
leather. When fishing, fishermen submerge nipa leaves in the sea to attract fish. Salt is
|
||
obtained by burning the roots or leaves and leaching the ash. The ash is used, with wood-
|
||
tar, in blackening teeth. Sap is used for making jaggery, sugar,^^^ alcohol, and vinegar.
|
||
Arrows are made from the petioles in the Mentawai Islands.
|
||
Folk Medicine — Reported to be intoxicant, nipa palm is a folk remedy for centipede
|
||
bites, herpes, sores, toothache, and ulcers.’* The sugar is used in a tonic prescription. The
|
||
stem-bud has been used in making a charmed preparation to counteract poison.
|
||
Chemistry — Of 18% of solids in the fresh sap, 17% was found to be sucrose, 1/2%
|
||
ash. The increase in total carbohydrates in the kernels was from 71 to 78%, between the
|
||
time they were removed for sugar-tapping (3 months) and at maturity (4 months). Leaves
|
||
contain 10% tannin.Fresh nipa sap contains ca. 17% sucrose and only traces of reducing
|
||
sugars. Vinegar (from sap fermented ca. 2 weeks) contains 2 to 3% acetic acid. Inunature
|
||
seeds contain ca. 70% starch. Leaflets contain ca. 10.2% tannin and 15.2% hard-tans.
|
||
Description — Gregarious palm, the rootstock stout, branched, covered with the sheaths
|
||
of old leaves, leafing and flowering at the ends of the branches. Leaves pinnatisect; 4.5 to
|
||
223
|
||
9 m long; leaflets linear-lanceolate, 1.2 to 1.5 m long, the sides reduplicate in vernation.
|
||
Spadix 1.2 to 2.1 m long, terminal, erect in flower, drooping if fruit. Flowers monoecious,
|
||
male in catkin-like lateral branches of the spadix, female crowded in a terminal head, perianth
|
||
glumaceous. Male flowers minute, surrounded with setaceous bracteoles; sepals linear with
|
||
broad truncate inflexed tips, imbricate; petals smaller; stamens 3; filaments connate in a
|
||
very short column; anthers elongate, basifixed; pistillode 0. Female flowers much longer
|
||
than the male; sepals 6, rudimentary, displaced; staminodes 0; carpels 3, connate, tips free
|
||
with an oblique stigmatic line; ovules 3, erect. Fruit large, globose syncarp, 30 cm in
|
||
diameter, of many obovoid, hexagonal, 1-celled, 1-seeded carpels, 10 to 15 cm long, with
|
||
pyramidal tips and infra-apical stigmas; pericarp fleshy and fibrous; endocarp spongy and
|
||
flowery; seed erect, grooved on one side; testa coriaceous, viscid within, adherent to the
|
||
endocarp; hilum broad; endosperm homy, equable, hollow; embryo basilar, obconic.*^^
|
||
Germplasm — Reported from the Indochinese-Indonesian Center of Diversity, the nipa
|
||
palm, or cvs thereof, is reported to tolerate heavy soils, salt, and tidal waterlogging. (2n
|
||
= 16.)
|
||
Distribution — India south to Australia and New Guinea,in tidal mud from the mouth
|
||
of the Ganges to Australia.Introduced in the mangroves of South Nigeria, where it has
|
||
mn wild.^^® Reported to have grown successfully in brackish waters of southern Florida.
|
||
Ecology — Estimated to range from Subtropical Dry to Wet through Tropical Dry to
|
||
Moist Forest Life Zones, nipa palm is estimated to tolerate annual precipitation of 5 to 45
|
||
dm, annual temperature of 21 to 27°C, and pH of 6.5 to 8.5. Often gregarious in mangrove
|
||
swamps and tidal forests, growing best in alluvial deposits of clayey loam with sufficient
|
||
salt.^®
|
||
Cultivation — Cultivated in Sumatra for wine and foliage production. Reproduces nat
|
||
urally by seed and detached portions of rhizome. It may attain 2 m height during its first
|
||
year.*^® Management consists of thinning natural stands to 2,500 to 3,500 palms per ha, 1.5
|
||
to 2 m apart. Periodic pmning to maintain 7 to 8 leaves if favorable to sap production.
|
||
Other authors suggest much wider spacings, 380 to 750 trees per ha. Bangladesh nursery
|
||
results are best where submerged at least 230 min/day.
|
||
Harvesting — Nuts are harvested as needed. The palm is ready for wine tapping after
|
||
the second flowering, when about 5 years old. Tapping may continue 50 years or more. If
|
||
the plant bears more than one spadix, one is topped, the other removed. Sap collection is
|
||
continued for about 3 months.
|
||
Yields and economics — The average yield of sap per plant is 43 €. According to
|
||
McCurrach,^®^ one hectare of nipa will yield 8,000 gals of sweet syrup, inexpensive source
|
||
of sugar, vinegar, and particularly alcohol. Nipa production is rural-based and labor intensive,
|
||
though probably less so than other alcohol plants.
|
||
Energy — On Bohol Island in the Philippines, a mini-distillery was set up to evaluate
|
||
potential for the production of ethanol from the nipa palm. Sap of the nipa contains ca. 15%
|
||
sugar, which can be collected from mature fruits stalks after cutting off the head. With care,
|
||
this can be repeated over an extended period of time, yielding up to 40 € per tree per season.
|
||
This translates to a projected 30,000 € juice per hectare. Cultivated palms may produce as
|
||
much as 0.46 £ per tree per day, equivalent to ca. 8,000 £ alcohol per ha per year.^^^
|
||
Halos^^‘ states that nipa is a better alcohol producer on a hectare basis than sugarcane or
|
||
coconut, comparing better with sweet potato. In 1919, 2 1/4 million gallons (more than
|
||
50,(XK) barrels) alcohol were produced from nipa palm. Midribs of the leaves are sometimes
|
||
used for fuel.
|
||
Biotic factors — Grapsid crabs are the worst pests of young nipa palms. Pollinated by
|
||
Drosophila flies.
|
||
224 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
ORBIGNYA COHUNE (Mart.) Dahlgren ex Standi. (AREACEAE) Cohune Palm
|
||
Syn.: A tta lea coh u n e Mart.
|
||
Uses — Seeds are source of Cohune Oil, a nondrying oil, considered finer than that of
|
||
coconut, used in food, as illuminant, and in the manufacture of soap. Very young buds, or
|
||
cabbage, consumed as a vegetable. Young leaves used to make hats and other apparel, and
|
||
for thatching.Pole-like rachis of the leaf used for forming the framework of huts. Large
|
||
quantities of nuts were once used in England for preparing charcoal used in gas masks.
|
||
Fruits made into sweetmeats and used as fodder for livestock. Trunk used for building. Sap
|
||
used for winemaking and for making intoxicating beverage.^^®’^*^
|
||
Folk medicine — Reported to be poisonous.
|
||
Chemistry — Per 100 g, the seed (ZMB) is reported to contain 6.9 g protein and 52.2
|
||
g fat. The tissue removed from the seed contained 1.2 g protein and 0.5 g fat.^^
|
||
Toxicity — “ It was said that if too much of the nut was eaten, constipation and sometimes
|
||
death might result.
|
||
Description — Tall monoecious palm 16 to 20 m tall; trunk to 30 cm thick, spineless,
|
||
usually ringed, covered with old leafbases. Leaves with petioles flat above, rounded below,
|
||
fibrous at base; blade up to 10 m long, erect, pinnate with 30 to 50 pairs of leaflets; leaflets
|
||
45 cm or less long, stiff, dark-green; flower-stalks from lowest leaves, in woody spathe.
|
||
Flowers small; staminate flowers fall as spathe opens; anthers slender, pale, contorted and
|
||
spirally twisted. Fruit 7.5 cm long, ovoid, in large grape-like clusters. Flowers February.
|
||
Germplasm — Reported from the Middle American Center of Diversity, cohune palm,
|
||
or CVS thereof, is reported to tolerate limestone, poor soil, sand, slope, savanna, and wa
|
||
terlogging. 2n = 32.^^
|
||
Distribution — Native to wet Atlantic lowlands of Central America from Mexico to
|
||
Honduras and Belize; grown south to Panama and northern South America.
|
||
Ecology — Ranging from Subtropical Dry to Moist through «Tropical Day Forest Life
|
||
Zones, cohune palm is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 6.4 to 40.3 dm (mean of
|
||
5 cases = 18.3), annual temperature of 21.3 to 26.5°C (mean of 5 cases = 24.1°C), and
|
||
pH of 5.0 to 8.0 (mean of 3 cases = 6.9). Thrives in tropical swamps and uplands, or in
|
||
tropical greenhouses, where night temperatures are not below 15.5°C; occurs from sea-level
|
||
to 600 m altitude, and appears on all types of soils, including marls, limestones, granites,
|
||
and slate-derived soils, as well as shales and mudstones. Grows in small congested patches.
|
||
Occurs also along large streams, on upland sites, on hills and in valleys, preferring rich
|
||
pockets of soil.®^’^^®
|
||
Cultivation — Lacking basal shoots, the palm is propagated by seed, in rich soil containing
|
||
loam, manure, and sand in proportions of 3-1-1. Seeds retain their viability for ca. 6 months.
|
||
Seeds should be planted about 5 cm deep and watered freely. Spacings between trees should
|
||
allow about lOO/ha.^^®
|
||
Harvesting — When freed of competing vegetation, lianas, and epiphytes, each palm
|
||
bears prolifically. In natural habitat, trees generally do not bear fruit until crown is free in
|
||
the canopy.
|
||
Yields and economics — Yields vary; often nuts are not available enough to supply an
|
||
oil-mill economically. Large supplies of nuts are not readily available and accessible. Fruits
|
||
or nuts are exported from Central America for soapmaking.
|
||
Energy — Although not so promising as the babassu for oil production, the germplasm
|
||
of the cohune may contribute to building a bigger genetic base for other oleiferous species.
|
||
Specific gravity of the wood is 0.868 to 0.971.^^^
|
||
Biotic factors — The following fungi cause diseases in this palm: Achorella attaleae,
|
||
Gloeosporium palmigenum, and Poria ravenalae.^^^'^^^ Bruchid beetles may damage the
|
||
seeds, destroying both embryo and endosperm.
|
||
225
|
||
ORBIGNYA MARTIAN A Barb. Rodr., ORBIGNYA OLEIFERA Burret, ORBIGNYA SPE
|
||
CIOSA (Mart.) Barb. Rodr. (ARECACEAE) — Babassu
|
||
Uses — Babassu kernels taste, smell, and look like coconut meat, but contain more oil.
|
||
The oil can be used for the same purposes as coconut oil, for margarine, shortening, general
|
||
edibles, toilet soap, fatty acids, and detergents. Unlike many palm oils, the babassu oil does
|
||
not quickly turn rancid. Babassu oil is rich in “ practically all of the elements needed in the
|
||
manufacture of plastics, detergents, emulsifiers, and many related materials” (H. G. Bennett,
|
||
as quoted in Balick^^). The protein- and oil-rich seed cakes are suitable for animal feed.
|
||
The endocarp is a good fuel. Leaves are used for thatching. Palm hearts are also eaten.
|
||
Folk medicine — The oil is used in medicinal salves.
|
||
Chemistry — Atchley^^ cites analyses with 9.4 to 16.2% protein, fat content of 0.2 to
|
||
62.9% oil — the higher oil figure possibly representing fruit rather than seed. NAS^^^ notes
|
||
that fruit oil may be as high as 72%. Pesce^^^compares the analysis of the coconut with
|
||
babassu (Table 1). Mesocarp runs 16.3 to 17% moisture, 1.5 to 4.9% fatty material, 63.8
|
||
to 71.3% starch, 0.0 to 0.8% sugar, dextrim cellulose 2.05%, 3.12 to 3.19% nitrogenated
|
||
226 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
Table 1
|
||
BABASSU KERNELS AND COCONUT COPRA
|
||
Babassu Coconut
|
||
(Orbignya martiana) {Cocos nucífera)
|
||
(%)
|
||
Moisture
|
||
4.21 3.80
|
||
Oil
|
||
66.12 66.00
|
||
Protein
|
||
7.17 7.27
|
||
Digestible carbohydrates 14.47 15.95
|
||
Woody fiber
|
||
5.99 4.55
|
||
Ash
|
||
2.03 2.43
|
||
From Johnson, D. V ., Ed. and Transl. (Original by Pesce, C.), Oil Palms
|
||
and Other Oilseeds of the Amazon Reference Publications, Algonac, M ich.,
|
||
1985, 199. With permission.
|
||
Table 2
|
||
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
|
||
AND PROPERTIES OF
|
||
COCONUT AND BABASSU OIL
|
||
Coconut oil Babassu oil
|
||
Fatty acids
|
||
(%) (%)
|
||
Saturated
|
||
Caproic 0.0—0.8 0.0—0.2
|
||
Caprylic 5.5—9.5 4.0—6.5
|
||
Capric 4.5—9.5 2.7—7.6
|
||
Laurie 44.0—52.0 44.0-46.0
|
||
Myristic 13.0—19.0 15.0—20.0
|
||
Palmitic 7.5— 10.5 6.0—9.0
|
||
Stearic 1.3 3.0—6.0
|
||
Arachidic 0.0—0.4 0.2—0.7
|
||
Unsaturated
|
||
Oleic 5.0—8.0 12.0—18.0
|
||
Linoleic 1.5—2.5
|
||
1.4—2.8
|
||
From Eckey, E. W ., Vegetable Fats and Oils,
|
||
Reinhold Publishing, New York, 1954. With
|
||
permission.
|
||
material, 1.2% ash, and 0.3 to 11.4% undetermined. The press-cake has 11.6% moisture,
|
||
6.5% oil, 19.8% protein, 40.0% digestible carbohydrates, 16.5% woody fiber, and 5.6%
|
||
ash.*^^ Eckeycompares the coconut oil with that of babassu (Table 2).
|
||
Description — Tall, erect, smooth-stemmed palm. Leaves erect-declined, large, elegant,
|
||
recurved at the flexuous apex; leaflets long, rigid, proximate, oblique-acuminate, disposed
|
||
in a vertical plane. Spadix large, ramose, pendent; branches rigid, bracted, dense; female
|
||
spadices with many sessile flowers on branches and male flowers abortive, small in the
|
||
apices; in male spadices, flowers with small calyx, petals two, rarely three, biquadridentate;
|
||
curved inward, overlapped; stamens 24, aggregated in groups of eight; loculus of anthers
|
||
irregularly coiled and twisted. Female flowers much larger, ovoid-oblong, bibracted, fer
|
||
ruginous tomentoso; sepals broadly oblong, obtuse-careened-acuminate; petals slightiy smaller,
|
||
oblong, with irregularly serrated margins, at the protracted apex tri-dentate; androecia abor
|
||
tive, half the number of petals; stigmas 3 to 6. Drupe large, oblong, conical, pointed.
|
||
227
|
||
enveloped almost half-way, at the base ferruginous-tomentose and at the apex albo-tomen-
|
||
tose, haloed, 3 to 6 seeded.
|
||
Germplasm — Reported from the Brazilian Center of Diversity, babassu, or cvs thereof,
|
||
is reported to tolerate alkalinity, sand, savanna, and waterlogging, perhaps even brackish
|
||
water.^°‘ Taxonomically confusing, the literature has contradictory references to O. martiana,
|
||
O. oleifera, and O. speciosa as the true “ Babassu” . The taxon oleifera “ prefers a drier,
|
||
semi-deciduous forest” .^^
|
||
Distribution — Babassu ranges from 3 to 10°S latitude and 40 to 70°W longitude in
|
||
Brazil.
|
||
Ecology — Estimated to range from Tropical Dry to Wet through Subtropical Dry to Wet
|
||
Forest Life Zones, babassu is estimated to tolerate annual precipitation of 15 to 60 dm,
|
||
annual temperature of 23 to 29°C, and pH of 4.5 to 8.0. Babassu grows best in alkaline or
|
||
neutral soils, under average rainfall and good drainage; but it is found in areas of high to
|
||
low rainfall, dry to swampy conditions, and generally in siliceous soils. It occurs as isolated
|
||
specimens and in solid stands, but principally in mixed hardwood forests, except in Maranhao
|
||
and Piaui, on the Pantanal of Mato Grosso and in local areas in some river valleys, where
|
||
it may form dense f o r e s t s .T h e day I spent on the bus crossing Maranhao and Piaui
|
||
was dominated by panoramas of babassu.
|
||
Cultivation — Mostly harvested from the wild, like Brazil-nuts and cashews. While
|
||
plantations have been established, little has been done to examine the variability of wild
|
||
trees for use in breeding and selection programs.
|
||
Harvesting — Slow to mature, babassu may start yielding at 8 years, rising to 12 years,
|
||
and bearing for 75 years or longer. While the palm flowers year round, it does not always
|
||
set fruit. In Brazil, fruits ripen from July to November, then fall to the ground. After
|
||
collection, the fruit is usually dried in the sun to facilitate removing the kernel from the
|
||
shell.With an axe and mallet, capable natives can shell up to 8 kg kernels a day, but are
|
||
more likely to average 4 to 5 kg a day.
|
||
Yields and economics — At an Office of Technology Assessment in 1980, Duke adduced
|
||
incredible figures stating that some babassu trees were reported to yield more than a ton of
|
||
fruit per year. Of the fruit, 10% is kernel, 50% (to 68%) of which is oil, indicating a yield
|
||
of ca. 40 kg oil per tree, or a barrel of oil for every four trees.Assuming a 63 to 70% oil
|
||
content per kernel, Balick^^ suggests a possible maximum of ca. 63 kg oil per tree per year,
|
||
indeed a living “ oil-factory” . Though individual trees are reported to produce 1000 kg nuts
|
||
a year, palms on cultivated plantations have yielded 1,500 kg/ha nuts. The fruit weighs 150
|
||
to 200 g and may contain 3 to 8 kernels containing 60 to 70% oil and constituting 10% of
|
||
the fruit’s weight. The kernel is surrounded by a pulp that is 10% starch, enclosed by a
|
||
hard woody shell nearly 12 mm thick. The pulp constitutes 20% of the weight of the fruit.
|
||
American imports peaked in 1945 at nearly 45,000 tons in a year when Brazil harvested
|
||
more than 70,000 tons. In 1974, Brazil produced >200,000 tons babassu kernels worth ca.
|
||
500 million cruzeiros. Babassu is probably the only species that could replace coconut in
|
||
the production of olein and stearin.Babassu, covering nearly 15 million swampy hectares
|
||
in the Amazon and employing nearly 100,000 people in Brazil, has been recommended for
|
||
further study and use by the NAS. Back in 1957, Markley^®® noted, “ It is probably the
|
||
largest vegetable oil industry in the world wholly dependent on a wild plant, developed from
|
||
an indigenous cottage industry and still capable of further expansion.” Markley^®* gives
|
||
details of the historical production and value of the Brazilian crop. Pinto^^"^ tabulates data
|
||
for 1940 to 1949.
|
||
Energy — As early as 1951, Pinto^^"^ noted, “ The shells and husks have proved to be a
|
||
source of fuel and when distilled may yield useful hydrocarbon products and also carbon
|
||
suitable for gas absorption. The whole nut is occasionally used for the production of oily
|
||
smoke in the curing of wild rubber; also, buttons are made from the shells.” Michael Balick^*
|
||
228 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
says, “ the babassu palm is one of the best sources of fuel in the form of charcoal or coke.
|
||
Babassu charcoal bums with a lower content of sulfur, and in some cases has more volatile
|
||
material than certain mineral coals.” In Brazil during World War I, the nuts were found
|
||
equivalent to coal in heat content, and the husks were easily converted to coke.^^ Analyzing
|
||
62 kinds of biomass for heating value, Jenkins and Ebeling*"^^ reported a spread of 19.92 to
|
||
18.83 MJ/kg, compared to 13.76 for weathered rice straw to 23.28 MJ/kg for pmne pits.
|
||
On a percent DM basis, the husks contained 79.71% volatiles, 1.59% ash, 18.70% fixed
|
||
carbon, 50.31% C, 5.37% H, 42.29% O, 0.26% N, 0.04% S, and undetermined residue.
|
||
Assuming 250 babassu trees per hectare, Pinto^^^ projects a potential production of 34,932,040
|
||
MT of kernels and (using his 65% figure) >22 million MT oil (or more than 55 million
|
||
barrels per year). This is about 15 times 1974 production of ca. 220,000 MT and 1978
|
||
production of ca. 240,000 MT. During World War II, liquid fuels were derived from babassu,
|
||
which burned easily and cleanly in diesel engines. Residues can be converted to coke and
|
||
charcoal. Clearly, this and other oil palms deserve further study as potential energy sources.
|
||
Biotic factors — The tree is sometimes attacked by beetles. Pachymerus nucleorum often
|
||
destroy the fallen fmits.
|
||
229
|
||
PACHIRA AQUATIC A Aubl. (BOMBACACEAE) — Saba Nut, Malabar Chestnut, Provision
|
||
Tree, Maranhau Nut
|
||
Uses — According to Sturtevant,^^^ the roasted nuts taste like chestnut, no nut being
|
||
better than this nut cooked with salt. Not all nut-eaters would agree. Young leaves and
|
||
flowers are also used as a vegetable. The seeds contain 50 to 58% oil, with an aroma
|
||
suggesting licorice or fenugreek. Panamanians and/or Colombians make a breadstuff from
|
||
powdered roasted seed. UphoP^'* suggests that seeds of large fruited types are used as cacao
|
||
substitutes. Choco witch doctors are said to use the seeds as a narcotic (but I’m not sure
|
||
that, in fact, they do). Bark yields a yellow dye used to tint sails, fishing nets, and lines.
|
||
Folk medicine — Saba nut is a folk remedy for eye ailments and inflammations. Gua
|
||
temalans use the bark and immature fruits for liver afflictions. Bark, which has demonstrated
|
||
antibiotic activity, is used for diabetes in Panama.*®
|
||
Chemistry — Per 100 g (ZMB), the seed of Pachira macrocarpa is reported to contain
|
||
560 calories, 16.9 g protein, 41.4 g fat, 37.9 g total carbohydrate, 13.1 g fiber, 3.7 g ash,
|
||
87.7 mg Ca, 302.3 mg P, 4.0 mg Fe, 76.1 mg Na, 7(X) mg K, 1300 |xg beta-carotene
|
||
equivalent, 0.03 mg thiamine, 0.06 mg riboflavin, 4.02 mg niacin, and 25.4 mg ascorbic
|
||
acid.*^ Seeds contain 58% fat. The seed fats of a Congo specimen contained 46% palmitic,
|
||
43% oleic, and 11% linoleic acids. Those of a Sudanian specimen contained 50.7% palmitic
|
||
and stearic, 40.8% oleic, and 8.5% linoleic. Those from South America contained 56%
|
||
palmitic, 3% stearic, 7.5% oleic, and 5% linoleic acids. There is also a report of 26.5%
|
||
cyclopropenoid acids in the seed fat.^^* Bark contains 2.7% tannin.
|
||
D^ription — Evergreen tree to 23 m high and 70 cm dbh, often buttressed; outer bark
|
||
hard, planar, thin, with weak distant vertical fissures; inner bark thick, reddish, marbled
|
||
with white. Leaves palmately compound, glabrous; stipules ovate, ca. 1 cm long; petioles
|
||
230 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
to 24 cm long, often ribbed, swollen at both ends; leaflets 5 to 7(9), oblong-ovate to elliptic,
|
||
caudate-acuminate to apiculate at apex, tapered to an acute base and decurrent on petiolule,
|
||
5 to 29 cm long, 3 to 15 cm wide, whitish-lepidote especially below. Flowers sweetly
|
||
aromatic, usually solitary in upper axils; pedicels stout, 1 to 5.5 cm long; calyx more or
|
||
less tubular, truncate, the lobes obscure; petals 5, valvate, linear, greenish-white to brown,
|
||
17 to 34 cm long, ca. 1.5 cm wide, curled outward at anthesis, stellate-puberulent outside,
|
||
glabrous to villous inside; stamens many, scarlet in apical third, white basally, erect to
|
||
spreading, slightly shorter than petals, variously united in small clusters basally to middle,
|
||
the clusters finally uniting with staminal column; anthers horseshoe-shaped, dehiscing by
|
||
straightening; ovary broadly ovoid, ca. 1 cm long; style colored like stamens but several
|
||
cm longer; stigma of 5 tiny lobes. Capsules reddish-brown, elliptic, oblong-elliptic, or
|
||
subglobose, shallowly 5-sulcate, mostly to 20(30) cm long and 10(12) cm wide, the valves
|
||
5, densely ferrugineous outside, appressed-silky-pubescent within; seeds usually 2 or 3 per
|
||
carpel, irregularly angulate, mostly 3 to 4.5 cm long at maturity, brown, buoyant, embedded
|
||
in solid, white, fleshy mesocarp.^^
|
||
Germplasm — Reported from the Latin America Center of Diversity, saba nut, or cvs
|
||
thereof, is reported to tolerate drought and waterlogging. The genus apparently contains
|
||
only one more species, the very similar Pachira insignis.^^^
|
||
Distribution — Native to the Americas, Mexico to Peru and Brazil, but cultivated in
|
||
Angola and the Congo, Florida, and the West Indies. According to R obyns,it ranges
|
||
from southern Mexico through Central America to Ecuador, northern Peru and northern
|
||
Brazil; often cultivated throughout tropical America, in some isles of the Antilles, in Africa
|
||
and Asia.
|
||
Ecology — Ranging from Tropical Moist to Wet through Premontane Moist to Wet Forest
|
||
Life Zones, saba nut is estimated to tolerate annual precipitation of 20 to 50 dm, annual
|
||
temperature of 22 to 28°C, and pH of 6 to 8.5. Rather pure stands occur, rather typical of
|
||
Tropical Moist and Wet Forests in Panama.Apparently confined to riverine and swamp
|
||
situations in my experience. The seeds may germinate while floating, striking root when
|
||
they lodge on soils.
|
||
Cultivation — Menninger^^ says it is grown commercially in the Congo, but I know of
|
||
no cultivation, except as a curio, here in America.
|
||
Harvesting — Trees as short as 2 m may begin flowering and fruiting.In Panama,
|
||
flowering all year though concentrated in February to April; most of the fruits mature from
|
||
March to August. New leaves appear around May.
|
||
Yields and Economics — With precocious fruiting, the tree may produce many large
|
||
fruits, with many large seeds.
|
||
Energy — With more than 50% oil, seeds might be viewed as an oilseed candidate for
|
||
fresh-water and slightly brackish swamps in the tropical moist to wet forest life zones.
|
||
Biotic factors — Pachira insignis is listed as an important alternative host to Steirostoma
|
||
breve (Cocoa beetle), major cocoa pest in tropical South America and the Caribbean Is
|
||
lands.
|
||
231
|
||
PAULLINIA CUPANA Kunth ex H.B.K. (SAPINDACEAE) — Guaraña, Uabano, Brazilian
|
||
Cocoa
|
||
Syn.: Paullinia sorbilis Mart.
|
||
Uses — Guaraña is a dried paste, chiefly of crushed seeds, which may be swallowed,
|
||
powdered, or made into a beverage. It is a popular stimulant in Brazil among natives who
|
||
grate a quantity into the palm of hand, swallow it, and wash it down with water. Taste is
|
||
astringent and bitterish, then sweetish. A refreshing guaraña soft drink is made in Brazil
|
||
similar to making the ordinary drink, but sweetened and carbonated. Odor is similar to
|
||
chocolate. Cultivated by the Indians and seed made into a paste, sold in two grades. Said
|
||
to be used also in cordials and liqueurs (fermented with cassava). Brazilian Indians make a
|
||
breadstuff from pounded seeds. Tyler^^^ notes that Coca-Cola — Brazil uses guaraña in a
|
||
carbonated beverage it markets there. I enjoyed it with rum at the airport in Rio. “ Zoom” ,
|
||
a rather tasty beverage, has been promoted as a “ cocaine” substitute. Menninger calls it
|
||
“ the most exciting nut in the world” . Erickson et al.^^ mention the product “ guaraña flor” ,
|
||
a flour extracted from burned flowers.
|
||
Folk medicine — A nervine tonic and stimulant, the drug owes its properties to caffeine.
|
||
Used for cardiac derangements, headaches, especially those caused by menstrual or rheumatic
|
||
derangements, intestinal disorders, migraine and neuralgia. Action is sometimes diuretic,
|
||
and used for rheumatic complaints and lumbago. Said also to alleviate fever, heat stress.
|
||
232 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
and heart ailments. With words like aphrodisiac, diet, narcotic, and stimulant associated
|
||
with guaraña in the herbal literature, it is little wonder that the herb has excited curiosity
|
||
among avante-garde Americans. Promotional literature states that guaraña outsells Coke in
|
||
Brazil, suggesting that Amazon natives sniff the powdered seeds, and stating (wrongly or
|
||
rightly) that guaraña decreases fatigue and curtails hunger. However, Latin Americans used
|
||
the plant mainly as a stimulant and for treating chronic diarrhea and headache.People
|
||
accustomed to guaraña swear “ that it improves health, helps digestion, prevents sleepiness,
|
||
increases mental activity” , and many whisper that it also improves sexual activity, but “ it
|
||
might act as a limiting factor to fertility(Pio Correa, as quoted in Menninger^^).
|
||
Chemistry — Indians in South America also made an alcoholic beverage from the seeds
|
||
along with cassava and water. Guaraña contains guaranine, an alkaloid similar to theine of
|
||
tea and caffeine of coffee; about 2.5 to 5% caffeine; and 5 to 25% tannin, as catechutannic
|
||
acid. An 800 mg tablet of “ Zoom” is said to contain ca. 60 mg caffeine.Adenine,
|
||
catechin, choline, guanine, hypoxanthine, resin, saponins, theobromine, theophylline, tim-
|
||
bonine, and xanthine are reported, in addition to the caffeine.^®®
|
||
Toxicity — May be quite high in caffeine (possibly the highest of any plant).Dysuria
|
||
often follows its administration. Has been approved for food use (§172.510). In humans,
|
||
caffeine, 1,3,7-trimethylxanthine, is demethylated into three primary metabolites: theo
|
||
phylline, theobromine, and paraxanthine. Since the early part of the 20th century, theo
|
||
phylline has been used in therapeutics for bronchodilation, for acute ventricular failure, and
|
||
for long-term control of bronchial asthma. At 100 mg/kg theophylline is fetotoxic to rats,
|
||
but no teratogenic abnormalities were noted. In therapeutics, theobromine has been used as
|
||
a diuretic, as a cardiac stimulant, and for dilation of arteries. But at 100 mg, theobromine
|
||
is fetotoxic and teratogenic.^^ Leung^^® reports a fatal dose in man at 10,000 mg, with 1,000
|
||
mg or more capable of inducing headache, nausea, insomnia, restlessness, excitement, mild
|
||
delirium, muscle tremor, tachycardia, and extrasystoles. Leung also adds “ caffeine has been
|
||
reported to have many other activities including mutagenic, teratogenic, and carcinogenic
|
||
activities; . . . to cause temporary increase in intraocular pressure, to have calming effects
|
||
on hyperkinetic children . . . to cause chronic recurring headache . . . ” .
|
||
Description — Large, woody, evergreen perennial, twining or climbing vine to 10 m
|
||
tall, usually cultivated as a shrub; leaves small, pinnate, 5-foliolate, alternate, stipulate, 10
|
||
to 20 cm long, the petiole 7 to 15 cm long, flowers in axillary racemes, yellow; the sepals
|
||
3 to 5, 3 mm long, petals 3 to 5 mm long, hairy; fruit a 3-valved capsule with thin partitions,
|
||
in clusters like grapes, pear-shaped, 3-sided; seed(s) globose or ovoid, about the size of a
|
||
filbert, purplish-brown to brown or blackish, half enclosed in the aril, flesh-colored, white,
|
||
yellow, or red, easily separated when dry. Germination cryptocotylar, the eophylls unifo-
|
||
liolate.^^®
|
||
Germplasm — Reported from the South American Center of Diversity, guaraña, or cvs
|
||
thereof, is reported to tolerate a pronounced dry season.®^
|
||
Distribution — Native to the Brazilian Amazon Basin, especially in the region of Maues,
|
||
in the valley of the Papajoz River, below Manaos,^®"^ in the upper regions of the Orinoco
|
||
Valley in southwestern Venezuela, and in the Moist Evergreen Forests of northern Brazil.
|
||
It has been reported in parts of Uruguay and was introduced in Sri Lanka and France (1817)
|
||
from South America.It seems to be thriving at the New Alchemist’s outpost in Gandoca,
|
||
Costa Rica (TMF).
|
||
Ecology — Ranging from Tropical Dry to Moist through Subtropical Moist to Wet Forest
|
||
Life Zones, guaraña is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 10 to 24 dm and annual
|
||
temperature of 23 to 27°C.®^ Guaraña grows naturally in deep acidic oxisols, where there
|
||
is a pronounced dry season from June to September. Flowering commences at the end of
|
||
the rainy season. The plant does not tolerate soil compaction. Although guaraña was originally
|
||
a swamp creeper in the moist evergreen forests of the Amazon, it has been more successfully
|
||
233
|
||
grown on well-drained black sandy soils. Plants do not do well when cultivated on yellow
|
||
clay soils.
|
||
Cultivation — Guaraña is obtained from both wild and cultivated plants.Pio Correa,
|
||
however, states that the plants are never found wild.^^^ Since seeds require about 3 months
|
||
to germinate, cultivated guaraña is usually propagated by shoots. Young shoots are spaced
|
||
about 7 m apart, and a triangular bower is built over each plant to provide support for the
|
||
climbing vine. Or seedlings may be spaced at 4 x 4 m (625 plants per ha) or 3 x 3 m
|
||
(1,100 plants per ha). Young plants should be shaded. Leguminous ground covers are often
|
||
established between the plants (P ueraria, V id a ). It has been suggested as an intercrop for
|
||
B actris gasipaes. It can be planted among growing cassava plants. Planting is usually in
|
||
February and March. Once established, plants require practically no care, except for
|
||
weeding.
|
||
Harvesting — Plants begin to flower and produce a small quantity of fruit when about
|
||
3 years old. Production increases with maturity, and vines live about 40 years. Fruits, like
|
||
clusters of grapes, are hand-picked in October, November, and December, after they have
|
||
ripened. As soon as the berries are harvested, they are thoroughly soaked in water, passed
|
||
over a sieve to remove the seeds from the white pulp (aril) that surrounds them and the
|
||
seeds placed in the sun to dry. After drying, seeds are immediately baked or roasted for
|
||
half a day to prevent fermentation, which sets in rapidly after the fruit is picked from the
|
||
vine. Seeds are roasted over a slow fire in clay ovens, skillfully, so that all seeds are equally
|
||
toasted and not burned. Roasted seeds, removed from the ovens, are separated from their
|
||
dry paper-thin shells by rubbing in the palm of the hands or by placing them in sacks and
|
||
beating them with clubs. Then the kernels are macerated with mortar and pestle. The coarse
|
||
powder produced is mixed with a little water and kneaded into a paste which is shaped into
|
||
cylindrical sticks or loaves ca. 2.5 cm in diameter and 12 to 30 cm long, weighing about
|
||
225 g each (about 1/2 lb). These “ cakes” are dried and smoked for about 60 days in an
|
||
open-fire drying house, where they require a dark chocolate-brown color and a metallic
|
||
hardness. Crude guaraña is sold on the market in this form, which will keep for many
|
||
years.
|
||
Yields and economics — A mature guaraña shrub or vine averages 1.3 to 5.0 kg/year
|
||
seed, occasionally yielding 9 kg; still, yields run only 77 to 175 kg dried seed per hectare.
|
||
In past decades, Brazil produced about 80 MT of guaraña paste annually, and exported about
|
||
50 MT. Herbal interests may have stimulated trade since then. About 6,(X)0 ha are now
|
||
cultivated, much of it in the Brazilian county of Maues, which produces ca. 80% of the
|
||
world’s supply as of 1980.^^’^^®
|
||
Energy — Lacking biomass data for this species, I will suggest that the pods, as residue,
|
||
might equal or exceed in quantity the biomass of the harvested seeds. The pulp and aril
|
||
probably represent less biomass, also a waste product. Prunings might be used for fuel wood.
|
||
Biotic factors — The most severe fungus known to attack guaraña is C olletotrichum
|
||
guaranicola Alb., which attacks the foliage and inflorescence. “ Black speckle” , caused
|
||
also by C olletotrichum sp., can be controlled by such compounds as benomyl, captafol,
|
||
macozeb, and methyl thiophanate. Fusarium decem ceH arare Brick, (so-called “ trunk gall” ),
|
||
causing a proliferation of buds resulting in large masses of nonproductive tissue, can kill
|
||
the plant. A red root rot is caused by G anoderm a ph ilip p i (Bres. & P. Henn.) Bres., causing
|
||
yellowing of the foliage, gradual decline, often followed by death. Pollination is by insects,
|
||
primarily bees and wasps; ants are also numerous.
|
||
234 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
PHYTELEPHAS MACROCARP A Ruiz and Pav. (ARECACEAE) — Ivory Nut Palm, Tagua
|
||
Uses — In Ecuador, they have “ commercialized” the hard, compact, heavy, brilliant
|
||
seeds, so highly valued for their thousand uses, and industrial applications, especially in
|
||
the button industry. The cabbage is quite edible, usually cooked, and the young fruits make
|
||
a beverage said to be just as good as coconut water; older fruits become thicker and more
|
||
mucilaginous or gelatinous, at which time it may be spooned out as a custard. Finally, they
|
||
harden as the “ vegetable ivory.” More recently, it has been used in polishing compounds
|
||
for the metals finishing industry. The roots are boiled to make a beverage. Refuse from the
|
||
button “ tumerys” can be made into cattle food and it is less legitimately used as a coffee
|
||
substitute, probably after scorching. According to Gohl,^^® ivory nut meal can be used for
|
||
all classes of livestock without any particular restrictions. Durable leaves used for thatch,
|
||
the stems are split and used for flooring. Empty spathes have been used as very durable
|
||
broom heads.
|
||
Folk Medicine — A liquid prepared by boiling the roots is considered diuretic in Ecuador.
|
||
Chemistry — Per 100 g, the seeds contain (ZMB) 5.3 g protein, 1.6 g fat, 91.6 g total
|
||
carbohydrate, 9.3 g fiber, and 1.5 g ash.^^® Seeds may contain 40% Mannan A and 25%
|
||
235
|
||
Mannan B. Mannan A yields on hydrolysis 97.6% mannose, 1.8% galactose, and 0.8%
|
||
glucose. Mannan B yields 98.3% mannose, 1.1% galactose, and 0.8% glucose. Nuts are
|
||
said to contain the alkaloid phytelephantin. Personal correspondence reveals that it is the
|
||
raw material for the preparation of the sugar D-mannose. D-mannan has shown some antitumor
|
||
activity.
|
||
Description — Acaulescent or short-stemmed diocecious palms to 20 m tall, 70 cm DBH.
|
||
Leaves pinnate, to 4 m long, 15 to 30 in the rosette, leaflets in a single plane, to 70 cm
|
||
long. Male flowers in elongate cluster to 2 m long. Female flowers in heads to 50 cm long
|
||
with perianth, the tepals to 30 cm long. Ovary 4- to 6-locular; style with 4 to 9 long lobes.
|
||
Germplasm — Reported from the Tropical American Center of Diversity, tagua, or cvs
|
||
thereof, is reported to tolerate rocky soil, shade, and temporary waterlogging.
|
||
Distribution — Panama to Brazil, Venezuela, and Ecuador. Although a species of mature
|
||
forest, it is often left to stand in cleared pastures and banana plantations.
|
||
Ecology — Estimated to range from Subtropical Moist to Rain through Tropical Moist
|
||
to Rain Forest Life Zones, tagua is estimated to tolerate annual precipitation of 20 to 110
|
||
dm, annual temperature of 22 to 28°C, and pH of 4.5 to 8.0. Sometimes gregarious; said
|
||
to “ prefer” naturally drained or porous soils, but flourishes on some rocky terrain and in
|
||
clay alluvial terraces. Ranges from sea level to 1800 m above sea level.
|
||
Cultivation — Tagua is rarely cultivated. There have been a few plantations started in
|
||
Ecuador, mountaineers merely scattering the seeds and weeding them, perhaps thinning them
|
||
occasionally. Seeds begin to germinate in 3 to 4 months. Young plants may need protection
|
||
from the sun.
|
||
Harvesting — A tagua may mature in 10 years, faster than commonly believed,^ starting
|
||
flowering only at 14 to 15 years (BurkilF^ says they start fruiting at 6 years), such that the
|
||
fruit appears to arise from the ground. Then the females produce fruits “ uninterruptably”
|
||
every subsequent year, a palm lasting for centuries in the mountains. Fruiting occurs through
|
||
out the year. When collectors are in too big a hurry, they may destructively fell the tree,
|
||
which kills it, unable to coppice. The unripe fruits thus obtained, are artificially matured
|
||
under organic matter, becoming the “ blond” tagua, as opposed to the “ dark” or “ black”
|
||
tagua. Leaves to be used for thatching are first fermented for 8 to 15 days.
|
||
Yields and economics — Well-developed palms produce 15 to 16 mazorcas (clusters),
|
||
each of which weighs 8 to 15 (to 19) kg. Twelve inflorescences will yield 100 pounds of
|
||
seeds with their shells, or ca. 60 pounds of shelled seed. Seeds may weigh up to 240 g.
|
||
Burkill figures that each tree produces 45 to 100 kg fruits per yr for 50 to 100 years. Back
|
||
in 1948, Acosta-Solis^ noted that a good price was about $0.70/l(X) lb. In 1928, Esmeraldas
|
||
Ecuador exported more than 1000 tons of seeds, 1929 being the highest year ever, with
|
||
nearly 2200 tons exported, dwindling down to 500 tons by 1941, and almost nothing after
|
||
that. In New York, in 1941, the Esmeraldas tagua was worth only ca. $2.00/100 lb, a mere
|
||
$0.10/kg.2
|
||
Energy — Phytelephas microcarpa is said to produce a valuable oil.^^*
|
||
Biotic factors — In Ecuador, a coleopteous larva attacks the stem, destroying the pith,
|
||
and often killing the tree; superficially this resembles the larva of Rhynchophorus palmarum.
|
||
Dryocoetes sp. (Coleóptera) may attack the fruit.^
|
||
236 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
PINUS EDULIS Engelm. (PINACEAE) — Piñón, Pine Nut, Nut Pine, Silver Pine
|
||
Syn.: P in u s cem broides var. edu lis (Engelm.) Voss and C aryopitys edu lis Small.
|
||
Uses — The State Tree of New Mexico, this species furnishes the piñón nuts or Indian
|
||
nuts of commerce. Piñón nuts are evident in the firepots of the Gatecliff Shelter, Nevada,
|
||
carbon-dated at 6000 years. Nuts (seeds) considered main article of subsistence by Indians
|
||
of California, Nevada, and Utah, eaten raw or, more frequently, roasted. Nuts have a rather
|
||
disagreeable flavor but are highly nutritious, rich in protein. Seeds are smaller but tastier
|
||
than those of the single-leaf piñón. In spring, buds at ends of limbs, inner bark, and core
|
||
of cone (which is something like cabbage stalk when green) are eaten. Wood is mainly used
|
||
for fuel and fenceposts; infrequently the tree-form is used for lumber of fair quality. The
|
||
piñón wood was also used in Indian construction. The pitch was used as a glue for water
|
||
proofing jugs, as a black dye for blankets, and to repair pottery. Navajo smeared piñón
|
||
pitch on a corpse prior to burial. Hopi dabbed it on their foreheads to protect them against
|
||
sorcery. Navajo used it for incense.
|
||
Folk medicine — According to Hartwell,the pitch is used in folk remedies for tumors
|
||
of the fingers and external cancers. Reported to be antiseptic and suppurative, the plant is
|
||
used as a folk remedy for boils, bugbites, laryngitis, myalgia, pneumonia, sores, sore throat,
|
||
swellings, syphilis, and wounds. Various parts of the plant are used medicinally by Indians:
|
||
crushed nuts for treatment of bums or scalds; smoke from burning branches for coughs,
|
||
colds, and rheumatism; and pitch for sores and wounds. Fumes of burning pitch were inhaled
|
||
by Indians for headcold, cough, and earache.^'
|
||
Chemistry — Per 100 g, the “nut” is reported to contain 714 calories, 3.0 g H2O, 14.3
|
||
g protein, 60.9 g fat, 18.1 g total carbohydrate, 1.1 g fiber, and 2.7 g ash.®^
|
||
Description — Straggling tree, forming a broad, pyramid-shaped crown in young trees
|
||
and later becoming round-topped, to 15 m tall, usually smaller; diameter to nearly 1 m;
|
||
tmnk often crooked and twisted; bark irregularly furrowed and broken into small scales.
|
||
Leaves mostly 2 to a fascicle, sometimes with varying proportions of 1- or 3-needled
|
||
fascicles, 2 to 4 (5) cm long, sharp-pointed, margins entire, sheaths of the fascicles deciduous,
|
||
the odor of the crushed foliage fragrant. Staminate cones about 6 mm long, yellow, soon
|
||
fading. Ovulate cones subterminal or lateral, 2 to 5 cm long, nearly as wide, ovoid, usually
|
||
brown at maturity, short-stalked, the scales becoming thickened, 2 to 6 mm long, 4-sided,
|
||
knobbed at the apex, the dorsal umbo inconspicuous; seeds large, 10 to 16 mm long, brown,
|
||
wingless, thick-shelled; cotyledons 6 to 10.^®
|
||
Germplasm — Reported from the North American Center of Diversity, piñón, or cvs
|
||
thereof, is reported to tolerate severe climatic conditions, including low relative humidity,
|
||
very high evaporation, intense sunlight, low rainfall, hot summers, slope, weeds, and alkaline
|
||
237
|
||
soil.^^ Piñón, or pine nuts, refer to the seeds of several pine species which grow along the
|
||
western area of North America from British Columbia southward into Mexico. P inus cem -
|
||
broides Zucc., or Mexican nut-pine, occurs in mountains of central and northern Mexico
|
||
and extends northward into New Mexico and southeastern Arizona; it is a tree to 20 m tall
|
||
with needles in fascicles of 3, bright green, 2.5 to 5 cm long, and seeds more or less
|
||
cylindrical to obscurely triangular and somewhat compressed at apex, about 1.5 to 2 cm
|
||
long. Pinus m onophylla Torr., or single-leaf piñón, occurs from Utah and Nevada, south
|
||
to Baja California and Arizona; it is a tree up to 7 m tall with the needles occurring singly,
|
||
or rarely in pairs, rather pale glaucous green, about 3.5 cm long, and seeds 1.3 to 1.5 cm
|
||
long and oblong. Hybrids between P. edulis and P. m onopylla are produced naturally,
|
||
especially in Utah; such trees have both 1 or 2 needles per fascicle, and other anatomical
|
||
features of the leaves are intermediate between the two species. Artificial hybrids have also
|
||
been produced with similar characteristics. P. edulis var. albo-variegata Hort. has white
|
||
leaves mixed with the green leaves.
|
||
D istrib u tion — Dry rocky places in the Colorado Plateau region of southwest Wyoming,
|
||
Utah, western Colorado, extreme western tip of Oklahoma, western Texas, New Mexico,
|
||
adjacent Chihuahua, Mexico, and eastern Arizona.^®
|
||
E cology — Ranging from Warm Temperate Thom to Wet through Subtropical Moist
|
||
Forest Life Zones, piñón, or cvs thereof, is estimated to tolerate annual precipitation of 3
|
||
to 21 dm (mean of 3 cases = 15), annual temperature of 15 to 21 °C (mean of 3 cases =
|
||
18), and pH of 5.0 to 8.5 (mean of 3 cases = 5.1).*^ To 1500 to 2750 m elevation. Thrives
|
||
on high tablelands at elevations from 1,600 to 3,000 m altitude, on shallow, rocky soil,
|
||
where annual rainfall of 30 to 45 cm and climate is arid. Sometimes forms pure groves but
|
||
more often grows along with oak, juniper, or yellow pine.^^^ Hardy to Zone 5.^"^^
|
||
C u ltivation — Trees or shmbby plants cultivated by Indians as far north as British
|
||
Columbia. Propagated from seeds scattered over ground. Not apparently cultivated in any
|
||
orderly fashion. Elsewhere grown as an ornamental. Trees are slow-growing, and often form
|
||
a compact shmb.^^*
|
||
H arvestin g — Cone matures in August or September of second season and sheds seed
|
||
shortly thereafter. Seeds are gathered in quantities in favorable seasons. Indians usually
|
||
collect nuts from the ground after cones have opened, or beat the nuts loose from their cones
|
||
with poles. Present-day nut-collectors, who often collect the nuts for recreation and then
|
||
sell them to local groceries, break off cone-bearing limbs, or tear green cones loose with
|
||
garden rakes, causing serious damage to trees, thus lowering their productivity. Nuts are
|
||
dried and sorted much like other nuts. They have unusual keeping qualities and may be
|
||
stored for as much as 3 years without becoming rancid.
|
||
Y ields and econ om ics — No data available, as most nuts are collected from wild plants
|
||
which vary widely in their size and productivity. Trees do not bear regularly nor equally
|
||
fruitfully. Piñón is considered a staple food for some Indian groups, both for themselves
|
||
and as an article for selling at markets, especially in New Mexico, Arizona, and Mexico.
|
||
Prices range to as much as $2.85 per pound in retail groceries.
|
||
E nergy — Historically, the wood, the cones, the needles, and the pitches and resins of
|
||
pines have been used as energy sources. Scandinavians have even adapted automobile engines
|
||
to run on turpentine-like compounds. Although the seeds may run more than 50% oil, they
|
||
seem better adapted to edible than to energy ends.
|
||
B iotic factors — A gricu ltu re H an dbook 165"^ lists the following as affecting this species:
|
||
Arceuthobium cam pylopodum Engelm. f. divaricatum (western dwarf mistletoe), A rm illaria
|
||
m ellea (root rot), C oleosporium crow ellii (needle rust), C. jo n esii (needle rust), C ronartium
|
||
occidentale (piñón blister rust), D iplo d ia pin ea (seedling blight), E lytroderm a deform ans
|
||
(needle cast, witches’-broom). P om es p in i (butt and heartwood rot), and H ypoderm a sac-
|
||
catum. (needle cast)."^ Wild animals also collect the nuts.
|
||
238 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
PINUS QUADRIFOLIA Pari, ex Sudw. (PINACEAE) — Parry’s Pine-Nut, Piñón
|
||
Syn.: P in u s cem broides var. p a rra ya n a (Engelm.) Voss and P in u s p a rra ya n a Engelm.
|
||
Uses — Nuts (seeds), which are rich in proteins, are used as an important food supply
|
||
by Mexicans and Indians, in Lower California especially. Seeds are eaten raw or in con
|
||
fections under name of pignolia. Taste is that of piney-flavored peanuts, except that the
|
||
meat is softer. Dense foliage makes the tree desirable as an ornamental tree in cultivation.
|
||
Trees also used in environmental forestry, as watershed, and as habitat or food for wildlife.^
|
||
Folk medicine — According to Hartwell,the ointment derived from the pitch is said
|
||
to be a folk remedy for external cancers. Duke and Wain^‘ report Parry’s pine-nut to be a
|
||
folk remedy for cancer.
|
||
Chemistry — No data available.
|
||
Description — Evergreen trees to 12.3 m tall, with thick, spreading branches forming a
|
||
pyramid, eventually becoming round-topped and irregular. Needles stout, in fascicles of 4,
|
||
not over 3.5 cm long, pale glaucous green, incurved, irregularly deciduous, mostly falling
|
||
the third year. Cones subglobose, chestnut-brown, lustrous, 3.5 to 5 cm broad, broadly
|
||
ovate, compact until mature; scales thick, pyramidal, conspicuously keeled, umbo with
|
||
minute prickle. Seeds few, large, dark red-brown, mottled, about 1.3 cm long; shell thin
|
||
and brittle. Fruit matures in August or September of second season. Hybridizes with P.
|
||
monophylla, single-leaf piñón, from border of U.S. into Baja California, Mexico.Fruit
|
||
green before ripening; yellowish or reddish-brown when ripe. Flowers June; cone ripens in
|
||
September; seeds dispersed September to October.^
|
||
Germplasm — Reported from the Middle America Center of Diversity, Parry’s pine-
|
||
nut, or CVS thereof, is reported to tolerate drought, heat, poor soil, and slope.
|
||
Distribution — Native at low elevations of southern California and northern Baja Cali
|
||
fornia, Mexico. Not hardy north ward. Most abundant of piñón pines. There are very
|
||
dense and extensive stands in the Sierra Juarez and the Sierra San Pedro Mártir, which
|
||
produce tremendous quantities of piñón nuts.^^^
|
||
Ecology — Ranging from Warm Temperate Wet through Subtropical Moist Forest Life
|
||
Zones, Parry’s pine-nut is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 10.3 to 21.4 dm (mean
|
||
of 2 cases = 15.9), annual temperature of 21.2°C, and pH of 5.0 to 5.3 (mean of 2 cases
|
||
= 5.2).*^ Thrives on arid mesas and low mountain slopes on well-drained soils. Tolerates
|
||
high temperatures and low rainfall; very drought-resistant.^^®
|
||
Cultivation — Trees not known to be in cultivation for the nuts. Sometimes trees are
|
||
cultivated as ornamentals. Propagated from seed, mainly distributed naturally.First cul
|
||
tivated in 1885. Germination hastened and improved by cold stratification of stored seeds
|
||
for up to 30 days at 0° to 5°C in a moist medium.^
|
||
Harvesting — Natives usually collect nuts from the ground after cones have opened, or
|
||
they beat nuts loose from cones with long poles. Present-day nut-collectors, who often collect
|
||
the nuts for recreation and then sell them to local groceries, break off cone-bearing branches,
|
||
or tear green cones loose with garden rakes, causing serious damage to trees, thus lowering
|
||
their productivity. Nuts have good keeping qualities and unshelled piñón nuts can be stored
|
||
for 3 years without becoming rancid. Piñón nuts mature in the second season during August
|
||
and September.There is a 1- to 5-year interval between large seed crops. Seeds are dried
|
||
for 2 to 8 days. Seeds may be collected by shaking the tree and collecting seeds on a cloth
|
||
spread on the ground.^
|
||
Yields and economics — In California, between 820 and 1,200 (average 960) seeds per
|
||
pound were collected from three samples.^ Exact yield data are difficult to obtain, as fruiting
|
||
is uneven, and nearly all piñón nuts are harvested from wild plants, which may be scattered.
|
||
Nuts form a very important item of the diet for some Mexicans and Indians, especially in
|
||
Baja California, and are sold in markets from San Diego southward, for as much as $2.85
|
||
per Ib.^^®
|
||
239
|
||
Energy — Historically, the wood, the cones, the needles, and the pitches and resins of
|
||
pines have been used as energy sources. Scandinavians have even adapted automobile engines
|
||
to run on turpentine-like compounds. Although the seeds may run more than 50% oil, they
|
||
seem better adapted to edible than to energy ends.
|
||
Biotic factors — This piñón nut tree is attacked by a fungus, Hypoderma sp. and may
|
||
be parasitized by the mistletoe, Arceiithobium campylopodum.^^^
|
||
240 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
PISTACIA VERA L. (PISTACIACEAE) — Pistachio
|
||
Uses — Pistachio is cultivated for the nut, rich in oil, eaten roasted, salted, or used to
|
||
flavor confections and ice cream. Arabs call the nut “ Fustuk” . The outer husk of the fruit,
|
||
used in India for dyeing and tanning, is imported from Iran. The fruit is the source of a
|
||
non-drying oil. In Iran, Bokhara Galls of Gul-i-pista, are used for tanning.The nuts are
|
||
much liked by squirrels and some birds, including bluejays and red-headed woodpeckers.
|
||
The wood is excellent for carving and cabinet work.*^^ In Iran, fruit husks are made into
|
||
marmalade; they are also used as fertilizer.
|
||
Folk medicine — According to Hartwell,the nuts are said to be a folk remedy for
|
||
scirrhus of the liver. Reported to be anodyne and decoagulant, pistachio is a folk remedy
|
||
for abdominal ailments, abscess, amenorrhea, bruises, chest ailments, circulation problems,
|
||
dysentery, dysmenorrhea, gynecopathy, pruritus, sclerosis of the liver, sores, and trauma.
|
||
Algerians used the powdered root in oil for children’s cough. Iranians infused the fruits’
|
||
outer husk for dysentery. Lebanese used the leaves as compresses, believing the nuts en
|
||
hanced fertility and virility.Arabs consider the nuts to be digestive, aphrodisiac, and tonic.
|
||
They are used medicinally in East India.
|
||
Chemistry — Per 100 g, the seed (ZMB) is reported to contain 624 to 627 calories, 19.7
|
||
to 20.4 g protein, 56.4 to 56.7 g fat, 20.1 to 20.6 g total carbohydrate, 2.0 g fiber, 2.9 to
|
||
3.3 g ash, 138 mg Ca, 528 mg P, 7.7 mg Fe, 1026 mg K, 146 jjig beta-carotene equivalent,
|
||
0.71 mg thiamine, 1.48 mg niacin, and 0.0 mg ascorbic acid.®^ Galls produced on leaves
|
||
contain 45% tannin. Tannin contains gallotanic acid, gallic acid, and an oleo-resin, to which
|
||
the odor is due.^^® Low in sugar (ca. 8%), high in protein (ca. 20%) and oil (>50%). The
|
||
oil is nearly 90% unsaturated fatty acid (70% oleic and 20% linoleic fatty acid).^^^ The
|
||
241
|
||
edible portion of the nuts contains 9.0 ppm Al, 0.02 As, 0.002 Au, 11 B, 0.1 Ba, 16 Br,
|
||
1066 Ca, 0.04 Cd, 408 Cl, 0.2 Co, 0.6 Cr, 0.1 Cs, 33 Cu, 0.1 Eu, 3.8 F, 46 Fe, 0.1 Hg,
|
||
51 I, 8639 K, 0.02 La, 0.01 Lu, 949 Mg, 3.4 Mn, 538 Na, 1.1 Ni, 0.8 Pb, 10 Rb, 960 S,
|
||
0.05 Sb, 0.004 Sc, 0.1 Se, 0.03 Sm, 0.4 Sn, 10 Sr, 0.4 Th, 3.1 Ti, 0.01 V, 0.1 W, 0.1
|
||
Yb, and 30 ppm Zn dry weight. The normal concentration of some of these elements in
|
||
land plants are 50 ppm B, 14 Ba, 15 Br, 2000 Cl, 0.5 Co, 0.2 Cs, 14 Cu, 3.200 Mg, 630
|
||
Mn, 3 Ni, 20 Rb, 3,400 S, 26 Sr, and 0.2 ppm Se dry weight. They were higher in copper,
|
||
fluorine, iodine, and potassium, and they were equal or higher in europium and thorium
|
||
than any of the 12 nut species studied by Furr et al. Moyer^^^ reports pistachios to contain,
|
||
per 100 g edible portion, 594 calories, 19.3 g protein, 53.7 g fat, 19.0 g carbohydrates,
|
||
5.3% water, 131 mg Ca, 500 mg P, 7.3 mg Fe, 972 mg K, and 158 mg Mn. An analysis
|
||
of pistachio kernels in the Wealth of India gave the following values per 100 g: 5.6%
|
||
moisture, 19.8% protein, 53.5% fat, 16.2% carbohydrates, 2.1% fiber, 2.8% mineral matter,
|
||
0.14% Ca, 0.43% P, 13.7 mg Fe, 240 I.U. carotene (as vitamin A), 0.67 mg thiamine,
|
||
0.03 mg riboflavin, 1.4 mg nicotinic acid, no vitamin C, and 626 calories. The fatty acid
|
||
composition of the oil is 0.6% myristic, 8.2% palmitic, 1.6% stearic, 69.6% oleic, and
|
||
19.8% linoleic acids. Galls contain 50% tannins. Both young and mature leaves contain
|
||
shikimic acid.^®
|
||
D escrip tion — Slow-growing, long-lived (700 to 15(X) years), small, dioecious bushy
|
||
tree, to 10 m tall, developing a large trunk with age; branches pendant. Leaves odd-pinnate,
|
||
the 3 to 11 leaflets ovate, slightly tapering at the base. Flowers dioecious, without petals,
|
||
brownish-green, small, in axillary racemes or panicles; pedicels bracted at base; staminate
|
||
flowers with 5-cleft calyx and 5 very short stamens with large anthers; pistillate flowers
|
||
with 3 to 4 cleft calyx, 1-celled sessile ovary and short 3-cleft style. Fruit a dry, ovoid to
|
||
oblong, pedicelled drupe, up to 2.5 cm long, reddish and wrinkled, enclosing 2 yellow-
|
||
green oily cotyledons (kernel). Flowers early summer; fruits August to September.
|
||
G erm p lasm — Reported from the Central Asia Center of Diversity, pistachio, or cvs
|
||
thereof, is reported to tolerate drought, frost, and heat.®^ Many varieties of pistachio have
|
||
been developed, because the crop has been grown for several thousand years, most are
|
||
named after the area in which they were cultivated. Iranian: light-yellow kernel, larger size
|
||
but lacks oily nut flavor; Sicilian, Syrian, and Turkish: almost green kernel throughout, with
|
||
good flavor; Afghan and Italian: deep-green kernels prefered for ice cream and pastry. In
|
||
Syria, district cvs are ‘Alemi’, ‘Achoury’, ‘Aijimi’, ‘Aintab’, ‘Ashoori’, ‘El Bataury’,
|
||
‘Mirhavy’. In Sicily: ‘Trabonella’, and ‘Bronte’. In California, 13 cvs have been tested:
|
||
‘Ibrahmim’, ‘Owhadi’, ‘Safeed’, ‘Shasti’, ‘Wahedi’ (largest nuts of any cv). In Turkey:
|
||
‘Uzun’ (nuts 34 to 36 mm long) and ‘Kirmizi’ (red-hulled, thin-shelled, free-splitting, green-
|
||
kemeled, containing 20.3% protein and 65.47% oil).^^® Joley^^^ reports on cvs being tested
|
||
at Chico, California. Male cv ‘Peters’, nearest to a universal pollinator, coincides well with
|
||
‘Red Aleppo’ and ‘Trabonella’ (early blossoming) and with ‘Kerman’ (late blossoming).
|
||
Cultivar ‘Chico’ provides a supplement to ‘Peters’. The first nut-bearing cvs tested at Chico
|
||
were ‘Bronte’, ‘Buenzle’, ‘Minassian’, ‘Red Aleppo’, ‘Sfax’, and ‘Trabonella’. The most
|
||
promising in quality and greeness of kernels are ‘Bronte’, ‘Red Aleppo’, and ‘Trabonella’.
|
||
‘Kerman’ is liked by importers and processors for its size, crispness, and snap when bitten
|
||
into and chewed. A sister seedling of ‘Kerman’, ‘Lassen’, also produces good quality large
|
||
sized nuts.^^^ (2n = 30.)
|
||
D istrib u tion — Native to Near East and Western Asia from Syria to Caucasus, and
|
||
Afghanistan, forming pure stands at altitudes up to 1(XK) m; pistachio has been introduced
|
||
and is now cultivated in many subtropical areas of the world, such as China, India, the
|
||
Mediterranean, and U.S. (Arizona, California, and Florida).
|
||
E cology — Ranging from Warm Temperate Dry through Subtropical Thom to Dry Forest
|
||
Life Zones, pistachio is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 4.7 to 11.2 dm (mean
|
||
242 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
of 7 cases = 6.2 dm), annual temperature of 14.3°C to 26.2°C (mean of 7 = 18.8°C), and
|
||
pH of 7.1 to 7.8 (mean of 4 cases = 7.6).^^ Hardy to Zone Pistachio requires cold
|
||
winters (to - 18°C) and long hot dry summers (to 38°C) to mature. Philippe^^^ assumes it
|
||
requires 600 to 1500 hours below TC to meet its chilling requirements. In Iran, it grows
|
||
at 1200 m elevation on desert plateau. In Turkey and California it grows in the same areas
|
||
as olives and almonds, but flowers later in the spring than almonds, and is less susceptible
|
||
to fruit injury. Requires from 30 to 45 cm annual rainfall, any less may need irrigation, but
|
||
requires less than most other culitvated fruit and nut trees. Soils should be deep, friable,
|
||
and well-drained but moisture-retaining; the root is deep-penetrating.^^® It can, however,
|
||
survive in poor, stony, calcareous highly alkaline or slightly acid, or even saline soils.
|
||
C u ltivation — Trees are difficult to transplant; green seed (nuts) are planted in their
|
||
permanent place. Other species of Pistacia are used as stock upon which to bud pistachio.
|
||
Care should be taken to select areas for the pistachio orchard which are protected from wind,
|
||
as in a valley, with less exposure to cold, and with soil relatively free of sand but possessing
|
||
the ability to retain moisture. After planting, soil should be cultivated periodically for 5 to
|
||
7 years, by which time the trees are 2 to 3 m tall. Branches of selected cvs are then bud-
|
||
grafted (2 buds per tree to insure at least one taking) on new trees. Male varieties shedding
|
||
pollen during the first half of female blooming period should be selected. In California,
|
||
male varieties ‘Peters’ and ‘Chico 23’ correspond well to female ‘Red Aleppo’, ‘Trabonella’,
|
||
and ‘Bronte’. One male tree should be planted to 7 or 8 females. Plantings should be about
|
||
9 m apart under irrigation, farther apart without irrigation. Pistachio responds favorably to
|
||
applications of nitrogen. After grafting, 4 to 6 years are required before trees begin to bear.
|
||
The trees do not bear fully until they are 20 to 25 years old, and continue to bear for 40 to
|
||
60 years or more. Pistachio trees are delicate, and production of nuts is influenced by excess
|
||
of rain, drought, excessive heat or cold, and high winds.
|
||
H arvestin g — Harvest period is August to September in most areas. It is best to harvest
|
||
the whole tree when most of the crop is ripe. Nuts can be knocked from trees. Clusters of
|
||
nuts are removed, allowed to dry 3 days on the ground, and beaten or stamped on to separate
|
||
the nuts from the clusters. They are then put in a tank of water to soak for 12 hr, and then
|
||
stamped on or beaten to remove the outer green husk. Finally, they are washed and dried
|
||
in the sun.'^^’^^®
|
||
Y ield s and econ om ics — Adult trees yield an average of 11.25 kg annually. Three kg
|
||
unshelled nuts yield 1 kg shelled.^^® Joley’^^ reports on the average yield of four pistachio
|
||
CVS per tree per year since start of production: ‘Kerman’ 22.45 kg dry weight, 15 years in
|
||
production; ‘Bronte’ 11.25 kg dry weight, 14 years in production; ‘Trabonella’ 6.35 kg dry
|
||
weight, 12 years in production; and ‘Red Aleppo’ 4.50 kg dry weight, 12 years in production.
|
||
For 8- to 15-year old trees in Jordan, Philippe^^^ estimates yields at 2 to 8 kg in shell per
|
||
tree, 200 to 800 kg/ha, for 16- to 30-year-old trees, 8 to 30 kg per tree, 800 to 2,400 kg/ha.
|
||
In 1976, the yield of American pistachios was 150,000 lbs; in 1979, more than 17 million
|
||
lbs. Yields of 50 to 150 lbs per tree are reported in California.Duke®^ reports 7 kg fruit
|
||
per plant. Nuts are marketed mostly unshelled and salted. Soaked in a brine solution, they
|
||
are quickly dried in the sun or in artificial driers to prevent development of surface mold.
|
||
Before marketing the shell is cracked for consumer convenience. “ Red” pistachios are
|
||
roasted, salted, and shell is colored with a vegetable dye; “ White” pistachios are roasted
|
||
and shell coated with a mixture of salt and cornstarch; “ Naturals” have only salt added
|
||
after roasting.^^® In 1979, the revolution in Iran caused the world’s main pistachio supply
|
||
to disappear, which in turn caused prices to rise from $1.25/lb in 1978 to $2.05/lb in 1980.
|
||
In 1982, the American crop of 43 million pounds of pistachios was valued at more than $60
|
||
million. Indications are that the U.S. crop will be 70 to 80 million pounds by the 1990s,
|
||
eventually topping 120 million pounds.
|
||
E n ergy — The wood has a specific gravity of 0.9179 to 0.92(X),^^'* and is said to make
|
||
243
|
||
an excellent fireplace wood.*^^ Analyzing 62 kinds of biomass for heating value, Jenkins
|
||
and Ebeling’"^^ reported a spread of 19.26 to 18.06 MJ/kg, compared to 13.76 for weathered
|
||
rice straw to 23.28 MJ/kg for prune pits. On a percent DM basis, the shells contained 82.03%
|
||
volatiles, 1.13% ash, 16.85% fixed carbon, 48.79% C, 5.91% H, 43.41% O, 0.56% N,
|
||
0.01% S, 0.04% Cl, and undetermined residue.
|
||
B iotic facto rs — Pollination is by wind or air drift. Many insects are serious crop-
|
||
destroying pests and should be controlled; an aphid (Anapleura lentisci) is one such pest.
|
||
Numerous fungi, causing serious damage, attack pistachio: A lternaría tenuissim a, A stero-
|
||
m ella pistaciaru m , C ladosporiu m herbarum , C ylindrosporium garbow skii, C. p ista cia e,
|
||
C ytospora teretinthi, F am es rim osus, Fusarium roseum , F. solani, M onilia p ista cia , O zon-
|
||
ium auriconium , P apu lospora sp., P hellinus rim osus, P hleospora p ista cia e, P hyllactin ia
|
||
suffulta, P h yllosticta lentisci, P. terebinthi, Phym atotrichum om nivorum , P hytophthora p a r
|
||
asitica, P ileola ria terebinthi, P leurotus ostreatus, R hizoctonia bataticola, R osellina n eca
|
||
trix, Septogloeum p ista cia e, S eptoria p ista cia e, S. pistaciaru m , S. pistacin a, Stem phylium
|
||
botryosum , T etracoccosporium sp., and U rom yces terebinthi. The P hytophthora causes
|
||
footrot via damage to cambium; S eptoria spp. cause defoliation and CuS spray should be
|
||
used; P hom opsis and Fusarium attack the female flowers; a virus causing rosettes is serious
|
||
in Asia; mistletoe attacks the trees; and the following nematodes have been isolated from
|
||
pistachio: H eterodera m arioni, M eloidogyne sp., and X iphinem a index.The roots are
|
||
very susceptible to root-knot nematodes.Verticillium wilt is the primary threat, according
|
||
to Vietmeyer.^^^ Rice et al.^^^ report epicarp lesion symptoms being reproduced on apparently
|
||
L eptoglossu s
|
||
healthy pistachio fruit clusters exposed to field-collected adult leaf-footed bugs,
|
||
clypealis. Two species of leaf-footed bugs, L eptoglossu s clypealis and L. o ccid en ta lis, and
|
||
at least four species of stink-bugs in the genera Thyanta, C hlorochroa, and A crosternum
|
||
produced similar external and internal damage to pistachio fruits. Other fruit symptoms, not
|
||
associated with insects, were panicle and shoot blight, endocarp necrosis, and stylar-end
|
||
lesion. Several species of smaller plant bugs in the family Miridae, including L ygus hesperus
|
||
and C alocoris norvegicus, caused epicarp lesion symptoms.
|
||
244 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
PITTOSPORUM RESINIFERUM Hemsl. (PITTOSPORACEAE) — Petroleum Nut (Eng
|
||
lish), “ Hanga” (Philippine)
|
||
U ses — Called petroleum nuts because of the fancied resemblance of the odor of the
|
||
fruit’s oil to that of petroleum, the fruits, even green ones, bum brilliantly when ignited.
|
||
Hence, they are used like torch nuts or candlenuts for illumination in the bush. Dihydroterpene
|
||
(CioHig) is used in perfumes and medicines. Heptane (CyH^^) is a component of gasoline,
|
||
and has been suggested as a possible component of paint and varnish.
|
||
F olk m ed icin e — The fmit is used as a panacea by Philippine traditionalists — especially,
|
||
however, for abdominal pain. The oleoresin is used to treat muscular pains and skin dis
|
||
eases. The nut decoction is used for colds. Cmshed nuts are mixed with coconut oil as
|
||
a relief for myalgia. AltshuP® quotes from a 1947 Sulit herbarium specimen, “ Petroleum
|
||
gas extracted from the fruit is medicinal for stomach-ache and cicitrizant.’’ Hurov^"^^ says
|
||
the fruit is used to treat rheumatism, muscle pains, and wounds.
|
||
C h em istry — The volatile oil of the fmit is reported to contain “ dihydroterpene and
|
||
heptane, which is a cardiac glycosideThe Horticultural and Special Crops Laboratory
|
||
at Peoria analyzed an accession of fmit, and identified, from its “ squeezings” , constituents
|
||
passing through a gas chromatographic column, heptane (about 45% of the elutents) nonane,
|
||
alpha-pinene or beta-ocimene, beta-pinene, myrcene, and unidentified materials. The es
|
||
sential oil (8 to 10% of fmit weight) contains myrcene (40%) and alpha-pinene (38%) in
|
||
245
|
||
± equal quantities (oil of P. undulatum contains mostly limonene). The two components
|
||
n-heptane (5%) and n-nonane (7%) are minor components.
|
||
D escrip tion — Aromatic tree to 30 m tall, but probably smaller in its elfin forest habitat
|
||
(perhaps even epiphytic); fruiting when only 6 to 12 m tall. Leaves aromatic, coriaceous,
|
||
entire (possibly evergreen), thickest above the middle, pinnately nerved, with a short acumen
|
||
at the tip. Flowers fragrant, white, clustered on the stems. Fruits average 25 mm in diameter
|
||
(12 to 43). Each fruit has 5 to 72 seeds (average 31), the seeds ranging from 1 to 4 mm,
|
||
averaging 3 mm. The seeds are about as close to hexahedral and prismatic as any I have
|
||
seen, being quite angular, black to blackish-gold, often still surrounded by a gummy or
|
||
resinous endocarp.
|
||
G erm p lasm — The FORI Director in the Philippines is actively collecting superior
|
||
germplasm in the high mountains of Bontoc and Benguet where they abound, especially in
|
||
elfin forests.
|
||
D istrib u tion — In the Philippines, petroleum nut is locally known in Benguet as apisang,
|
||
abkol, abkel, and langis; in the Mountain Province, dael and dingo, and in Abra, sagaga.
|
||
It abounds in Mt. Pulis, Ifugao, and is reported from the head-waters of the Agno and Chico
|
||
River Basins. Also in the Bicol Provinces, Palawan, Mindoro, Nueva Ecija, and Laguna
|
||
Provinces. It is being cultivated at FORFs Conifer Research Center, Baguio City.*^’^^^
|
||
E cology — Petroleum nut is reported to range from 600 to 2,400 m elevation, usually
|
||
in elfin or Benguet Pine Forest. Average of 7 climatic data sites where the Pittosporum
|
||
grows was close to 1,000 m, the range from ca. 550 to 2,000 m. Whether or not it can
|
||
stand frost, dry heat, and drought is questionable. Frequently, species of elfin forests have
|
||
very narrow ecological amplitudes and do not thrive in other vegetation types. Results of
|
||
transplants and trials are unavailable to me now. Reportedly, seed were introduced once,
|
||
at least to Hawaii. Thanks to Professors Ludivina S. de Padua, S. C. Hales, and Juan V.
|
||
Pancho of the Philippines, we now have a fairly good idea of the ecosystematic amplitudes
|
||
of the Pittosporum, an energy plant that has captured the imagination of many. Professor
|
||
de Padua checked off all the climatic data points (from our climatic data base) at which
|
||
Pittosporum resiniferum was growing, prior to its widespread introduction for potential
|
||
energy studies elsewhere in the Philippines. Ranging from Tropical Dry to Moist through
|
||
Subtropical Forest Life Zones, the petroleum nut grows where the annual precipitation ranges
|
||
from 15 to more than 50 dm (mean of 36 cases = 27 dm), annual temperature from 18 to
|
||
28°C (mean of 17 cases = 26°C). Of 17 cases where both temperature and rainfall data
|
||
were available to us, 13 would suggest Tropical Moist Forest Life Zone, three would suggest
|
||
Tropical Dry, and one would suggest Subtropical Rain Forest Life Zones.
|
||
C ultivation — Seeds and cutting can be used to propagate the tree. Seeds may lose their
|
||
vitality rather rapidly. According to Juan V. Pancho (personal communication, 1982), “ from
|
||
my experience, the seed lost its viability after one month storage.”
|
||
H arvestin g — Currently, seeds are harvested from the wild.
|
||
Y ields and econ om ics — A single fruit yields 0.1 to 3.3 m€, averaging about 1.3 m€
|
||
oil. In general, the bigger the fruit, the larger the seed, and the greater the oil content.
|
||
It is reported^^ that a single tree from Mount Mariveles, Bataan, yielded 15 kg green fruits,
|
||
which yielded 800 cm^ of oil. The residue, ground up and distilled with steam, yielded 73
|
||
cm^ more. Another report gave 68 g per kg fresh nuts, suggesting about 1 kg oil per tree
|
||
yielding 15 kg.‘^ Currently, seeds are being sold at $2.00 per gram in 5-gram lots (ca. 40
|
||
seeds per g) by the FORI Seed Officer, Forest Research Institute College, Laguna, Phil
|
||
ippines.
|
||
E n ergy — The plant was discovered as a hydrocarbon source just after 1900. Based on
|
||
the previous paragraph, it seems it would take 1,000 trees per ha to get one MT oil per
|
||
hectare from the fruits. Perhaps the resin in the leaves, twigs, etc. would equal or exceed
|
||
this; figures are not yet available. The oil derived from the fruits is quite sticky and rapidly
|
||
246 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
turns resinous when laid thin. In an open dish, it bums strongly, although with a sooty
|
||
flame.C. A. Arroyo‘S notes that for home use as fuel, “ the husk of African oil palm nuts
|
||
could be much better than the petroleum nut that emits sooty smoke and strong smell.”
|
||
President Marcos was said to encourage each Philippine farmer to plant five trees in the
|
||
hopes that they could obtain 300 € of oil therefrom, per year. I saw nothing about this at
|
||
the Philippine exhibit at the World’s Fair in June 1982. However, if yields of 60 € of oil
|
||
per tree are possible, the tree should certainly be examined! In the January 1981 issue of
|
||
Canopy International, Generalao^®® lists petroleum nut at the top of a long list of potential
|
||
oil seeds including Pongamia pinnata, Sterculia foetida, Terminalia catappa, Sindora supa,
|
||
Calophyllum inophyllum, Canarium luzonicum, Aleurites moluccana, Aleurites trisperma,
|
||
Mallotus philippensis, Barringtonia asiatica, Sindora inermis, Pithecellobium dulce, Ta-
|
||
marindus indica, Chisocheton cumingianus, Jatropha curcas, and Euphorbia philippensis
|
||
to help the Philippines solve their energy problem (importing 85%). Presidential Decree
|
||
1068 declares the imperative acceleration of research on energy alternatives. Editorial notes
|
||
in Canopy International suggest that the flammable element in petroleum nut is volatile,
|
||
evaporating quickly like acetone. Some chemists believe admixing another element will
|
||
stabilize the compound. One Hurov seed cataloghas very optimistic notes about the plant:
|
||
“ The Gasoline Tree produces masses of apricot-sized orange fruits which when cut and
|
||
touched with a match leap into flame and bum steadily. The fmits contain 46% of gasoline
|
||
type components (heptane, dihydroterpene, etc.), which are found in extensive networks of
|
||
large resin canals. If planted, the estimated yield would be about 45 tons of fmit or 2500
|
||
gallons of ‘gasoline’ per acre per
|
||
B iotic factors — No data available.
|
||
247
|
||
PLATONIA ESCULENTA (Arr. Cam.) Rickett & Stafl. (CLUSIACEAE) — Bacury, Bacuri,
|
||
Pakuri, Parcouril, Piauhy, Wild Mammee (Guyana)
|
||
S yn .: Anstoclesia esculenta (A rr. C a m .) Stuntz; Platonia insignis M art.
|
||
Uses — Seeds are the source of Bacury Kernel Oil, a nondrying oil used in the manufacture
|
||
of candles and soaps. Fruits are used for pastry and preserves, and are highly esteemed in
|
||
the Amazon region for the delicious pulp from the large fruit, used in sweets and ice cream.
|
||
Extracts of the fruit are toxic to black carpet beetles, but not to the larvae of Aedes and
|
||
Anopheles. A yellow gum resin secreted by the bark is used in veterinary medicine. Wood,
|
||
brownish-yellow, turning black upon exposure to air, is durable, resistant to insect attacks;
|
||
resilient, rather fine-grained, easy to work, taking on a lustrous finish; used for flooring,
|
||
planks, fancy wood-work, and construction of buildings. Presently, wood is used for making
|
||
rum barrels, and cases or crates for shipping bananas; it is also excellent for cabinet work
|
||
and carpentry. Bark is white, exfoliating, fibrous, used for cordage, and yielding a black
|
||
viscous resin used for caulking boats.
|
||
F olk m ed icin e — No data available.
|
||
C h em istry — This is one of the few outstanding exceptions to the generally evenly
|
||
distributed glyceride structure of solid seed fats. In 1945, it was reported to have the unusually
|
||
high melting point of 51 to 52°C and contain 24% fully saturated glycerides, although its
|
||
component acids were approximately 56% saturated (palmitic and stearic) with 39% oleic
|
||
and 4% linoleic acid. Component acids reported are myristic 1.0, palmitic 55.1, stearic 6.4,
|
||
arachidic 0.3, hexadecenoic 3.2, oleic 31.7, and linoleic 2.3%, and the component glycer
|
||
ides: fully saturated 20 (tripalmitin 15), oleodipalmitin 38, oleopalmitostearin 17, palmi-
|
||
todiolein 19, stearodiolein 6%. Apart from the fully saturated glyceride content, the rest of
|
||
248 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
the fat is constituted on the usual lines, and bacury fat thus resembles laurel kernel fat in
|
||
that it is only the fully saturated glycerides which are abnormal. It is possible, but of course
|
||
not in any way proven, that such departures from the normal are caused by certain acids
|
||
(in this instance, palmitic) being produced in the seed at some stage of its development in
|
||
much greater proportions than the average content of the acid in the total seed fat at maturity;
|
||
if so, the departure from normality would be more apparent than real. Elsewhere, Hilditch
|
||
and Williams report among the saturated fatty acids 1.2% C14, 57.2% C,^, 6.0% Cjg, and
|
||
0.2% C20 or above. Among the glycerides, 19% were trisaturated, 55% were disaturated,
|
||
26% monosaturated.*^^
|
||
D escrip tion — Large trees with yellowish sap; trunk straight, cylindrical, 50 to 55 cm
|
||
in diameter (up to 1.3 m), free of branches 20 to 25 m up, with indistinct, low, thick
|
||
butresses; cortex dark-gray, with deep vertical cracks 1 to 3 cm apart, or with large scales
|
||
5 to 25 mm thick; crown broad, flattened, with thick straight slightly slanting branches;
|
||
twigs straight and stout; entire plant glabrous except the inflorscence. Leaves remote at ends
|
||
of branches and in single pairs at ends of short lateral branchlets; petioles 1 to 2 cm long,
|
||
margined; blade elliptic, obovate or oblong to oblong-lanceolate, apex and base rounded,
|
||
acute or slightly acuminate, up to 15 cm long, coriaceous, glossy above, midrib flat or
|
||
impressed above, prominent to strongly prominent beneath; primary veins prominent on both
|
||
sides, connected by a submarginal vein. Inflorescence 1- to 3-flowered, terminating the leaf
|
||
bearing branchlets; peduncle absent; pedicels 1 to 3 cm long, their bases surrounded by a
|
||
series of deltoid bracts 3 to 4 mm long, leaving transverse scars; flowers minutely pulverulent;
|
||
sepals ovate to broad semi-orbicular, 6 to 8 mm long; petals elliptic, 3.5 to 4 cm long, pink
|
||
outside, white inside; bud reddish. Fruit globose, 5 to 7.5 cm long, green, turning yellow;
|
||
mesocarp edible, often containing only 1 seed, rarely more, of pleasant flavor. Flowers
|
||
September to November; fruits March to May.^^*
|
||
G erm p lasm — Native to the South American Center of Diversity, bacury tolerates sand
|
||
and some waterlogging. Mors and Rizzini^^^ state “ it would be an ideal object of study for
|
||
plant breeders, who could increase the pulpy part at the expense of the very large seeds” .
|
||
Oilseed specialists might breed in the other direction.
|
||
D istrib u tion — Native to Brazil (Para, Maranhao, Ceara, Goyaz, Amazon) and Guyana.
|
||
E cology — Estimated to range from Subtropical Dry to Wet through Tropical Dry to Wet
|
||
Forest Life Zones, perhaps tolerating annual temperatures of 18 to 25°C, annual precipitation
|
||
of 5 to 40 dm, and pH of 4.5 to 8.0. On sandy, dry plains and in marshy regions, growing
|
||
scattered in tropical environment.^^®
|
||
C u ltivation — Trees grow naturally from seeds in the forests, and the tree is not known
|
||
to be cultivated.
|
||
H arvestin g — Trees are cut from the forest for timber. Fruits and seeds are collected by
|
||
natives and sold at trading centers. Most of the products are used locally by the natives.
|
||
Y ield s and econ om ics — No yield data available. Seeds and fruits are sold at local
|
||
markets in Brazil, French Guyana, and Surinam. Also lumber, dye wood, and fiber are sold
|
||
in some markets.
|
||
E n ergy — Prunings and falling leaves might provide 5 to 10 MT dry matter per ha per
|
||
yr, which could be diverted to energy production, for direct combustion or conversion into
|
||
alcohol or methane. With no yield data on the nuts, I cannot speculate as to how much
|
||
renewable oil, resin, and fuel wood this produces.
|
||
B iotic factors — No serious pests or diseases have been reported for this tree.
|
||
249
|
||
PRUNUS DULCIS (MILL.) D.A. WEBB (ROSACEAE) — Almond
|
||
Uses — Almonds are cultivated for the nuts, used in candies, baked products, and
|
||
confectioneries, and for the oils obtained from the kernels. Oil is used as a flavoring agent
|
||
in baked goods, perfumery and medicines. Benzaldehyde may be used for almond flavoring,
|
||
being cheaper ($1.54/kg) than almond oil ($5.28 to $6.60/kg).^^^ Much valued in the orient
|
||
because it furnishes a very pleasant oil. In Tuscany, almond branches are used as divining
|
||
rods to locate hidden treasure. Modem English Jews reportedly still carry branches of
|
||
flowering almonds into the synagogue on spring festival days. There is the legendary story
|
||
of Charlemagne’s troops’ spears (almond) sprouting in the ground overnight and shading
|
||
the tents the next day. As essential oils go, there is only bitter almond oil. Sweet almond
|
||
oil is used for cosmetic creams and lotions, although in a crisis, it might conceivably be
|
||
used as an energy source. The gum exuded from the tree has been used as a substitute for
|
||
tragacanth.®^
|
||
F olk M ed icin e — According to Hartwell,the seed and/or its oil are used in folk
|
||
remedies for cancer (especially bladder, breast, mouth, spleen, and uterus), carcinomata,
|
||
condylomata, corns, indurations and tumors. Reported to be alterative, astringent, carmi
|
||
native, cyanogenetic, demulcent, discutient, diuretic, emollient, laxative, lithotriptic, ner
|
||
vine, sedative, stimulant and tonic, almond is a folk remedy for asthma, cold, corns, cough,
|
||
dyspnea, emptions, gingivitis, heartburn, itch, lungs, prurigo, skin, sores, spasms, sto
|
||
matitis, and ulcers. The kernels are valued in diet, for peptic ulcers. It is no surprise that
|
||
the seeds and/or oil (containing amygdalin or benzaldehyde) are widely acclaimed as folk
|
||
cancer remedies, for all sorts of cancers and tumors, calluses, condylomata, and corns.
|
||
Lebanese extract the oil for skin trouble, including white patches on skin; used throughout
|
||
the Middle East for an emollient; also for itch. Raw oil from the bitter variety is used for
|
||
acne. Almond and honey was given for cough. Thin almond paste was added to wheat
|
||
porridge to pass gravel or stone. It is believed by the Lebanese to restore virility. Iranians
|
||
make an ointment from bitter almonds for furuncles. Bitter almonds, when eaten in small
|
||
quantity, sometimes produce nettle-rash. When taken in large quantity, they may cause
|
||
250 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
poisoning. Ayurvedics consider the fruit, the seed and its oil aphrodisiac, using the oil for
|
||
biliousness and headache, the seed as a laxative. Unani use the seed for ascites, bronchitis,
|
||
colic, cough, delirium, earache, gleet, hepatitis, headache, hydrophobia, inflammation,
|
||
renitis, skin ailments, sore throat, and weak eyes.^'^^
|
||
C h em istry — Per 100 g, the seed is reported to contain 547 to 605 calories, 4.7 to 4.8
|
||
g H2O, 16.8 to 21.0 g protein, 54.1 to 54.9 g fat, 17.3 to 21.5 g total carbohydrate, 2.6
|
||
to 3.0 g fiber, 2.0 to 3.0 g ash, 230 to 282 mg Ca, 475 to 504 mg P, 4.4 to 5.2 mg Fe, 4
|
||
to 14 mg Na, 432 to 773 mg K, 0 to 5 |xg beta-carotene equivalent, 0.24 to 0.25 mg
|
||
thiamine, 0.15 to 0.92 mg riboflavin, 2.5 to 6.0 mg niacin, and traces of ascorbic acid.
|
||
According to WOI, the seeds contain 5.8 mg/100 g Na, 856 K, 247 Ca, 257 Mg, 4.23 Fe,
|
||
0.14 Cu, 442 P, 145 S and 1.7 Cl. About 82% of the P is in phytic acid. Seeds contain
|
||
0.45 ppm folic acid, 150 mg/kg alpha-tocopherol and 5 mg/kg gamma-tocopherol. The chief
|
||
protein is a globulin, amandin, which contains 11.9% arginine, 1.6% histidine,, 0.7% lysine,
|
||
2.5% phenylalanine, 4.5% leucine, 0.2% valine, 1.4% tryptophane, 0.7% methionine, and
|
||
0.8% cystine. The approximate fatty acid composition of the oil is 1% myristic, 5% palmitic,
|
||
77% oleic, and 17% linoleic.Sweet almond oil from Kashmir showed 0.2% myristic, 8.9%
|
||
palmitic, 4.0% stearic, 62.5% oleic, and 24.4% linoleic. The essential oil is 81 to 93%
|
||
benzaldehyde, close kin to laetrile. The hulls (fleshy pericarp) contain: 7.5% moisture,
|
||
25.6% total sugars, 7.2% reducing sugars, 4.4% tannin, 2.6 to 4.7% protein, 1.6% starch,
|
||
2.4% pectin, 1.1 to 1.2% ether extract, 12.6% crude fiber, and 4.6 to 6.3% ash.^® The gum
|
||
which exudes from the trunk hydrolyses into 4 parts L-arabinose, 2 parts D-xylose, 3 parts
|
||
D-galactose, and 1 part D-glucuronic acid. The edible portion of the nuts contain 3.2 ppm
|
||
Al, 0.02 As, 0.001 Au, 18 B, 2.6 Ba, 20 Br, 2720 Ca, 0.02 Cd, 28 Cl, 0.2 Co, 1.7 Cr,
|
||
0.1 Cs, 14 Cu, 0.1 Eu, 1.3 F, 54 Fe, 0.04 Hf, 0.1 Hg, 0.1 I, 6346 K, 0.03 La, 0.01 Lu,
|
||
2297 Mg, 14 Mn, 0.3 Mo, 20 Na, 1.6 Ni, 0.4 Pb, 13 Rb, 3420 S, 0.1 Sb, 0.003 Sc, 0.02
|
||
Se, 960 Si, 0.1 Sm, 0.7 Sn, 16 Sr, 0.03 Ta, 0.2 Th, 3.5 Ti, 0.02 V, 0.1 W, 0.1 Yb, 32
|
||
ppm Zn dry weight. The normal concentration of some of these elements in land plants are
|
||
50 ppm B, 14 Ba, 15 Br, 2000 Cl, 0.5 Co, 0.2 Cs, 14 Cu, 3.200 Mg, 630 Mn, 3 Ni, 20
|
||
Rb, 3,400 S, 26 Sr, and 0.2 ppm Se dry weight. They were higher in calcium and chromium
|
||
than any of the 12 nut species studied by Furr et al.*®^
|
||
D escrip tion — Tree to 10 m tall, the alternate leaves lanceolate to oblong lanceolate,
|
||
minutely serrate. Flowers solitary, white to pink, actinomorphic, 20 to 50 mm broad,
|
||
appearing with or before the foliage. Fruit an oblong drupe 30 to 60 mm long, pubescent,
|
||
the tough flesh splitting at maturity to expose the pitted stone; endocarp thin or thick; seed
|
||
flattened, longovoid, the seed coat brown.
|
||
G erm p lasm — Reported from the Central Asian and Near Eastern Centers of Diversity,
|
||
almond or cvs thereof is reported to tolerate drought, frost, high pH, heat, mycobacteria,
|
||
nematodes, slope, and wilt.^^ ‘Cavaliera’ is very early, ‘Nonpareil’ early, ‘Ferragnes’ me
|
||
dium, ‘Marcona’ late, and ‘Texas’ very late. (2n = 16.)
|
||
D istrib u tion — Widely distributed in cultivation now, the sweet almond is said to have
|
||
wild types in Greece, North Africa, and West Asia. Almond was cultivated in China in the
|
||
10th Century BC, in Greece in the 5th Century BC.
|
||
E cology — Ranging from Cool Temperate Moist to Wet through Subtropical Thom to
|
||
Moist Forest Life Zones, almond is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 2.0 to 14.7
|
||
dm (mean of 11 cases = 7.5) annual temperature of 10.5 to 19.5°C (mean of 11 cases =
|
||
14.8) and pH of 5.3 to 8.3 (mean of 7 cases = 7.3). Almond does well in the hot, dry
|
||
interior valleys of California, where the nuts mature satisfactorily. The leaves and nuts are
|
||
less subject to attack by disease-causing fungi in the hot, dry climate than under cooler and
|
||
more humid conditions. It has a low winter chilling requirement. Because of this low chilling
|
||
requirement (or short rest period), and the relatively low amount of heat required to bring
|
||
the trees into bloom, the almond is generally the earliest deciduous fruit or nut tree to flower,
|
||
251
|
||
hence extremely subject to frost injury where moderately late spring frosts prevail. Almonds
|
||
need ample rainfall or irrigation water for maximum production of well-filled almond nuts.
|
||
Trees have been planted in certain areas where supplies of water are inadequate for other
|
||
fruit or nut crops; however, yields of nuts were low. In general, conditions favoring peach
|
||
production will also favor almonds. The almond tree has been successfully grown on a wide
|
||
range of soils. It is a deep-rooted tree and draws heavily on the soil, which should be deep,
|
||
fertile, and well drained. Sandy loams are best. Since sandy soils are often deficient in plant
|
||
food elements, careful attention must be paid to proper fertilization of the trees. Almond
|
||
trees have high N and P requirements. Sandy soils are easy to cultivate, and cover crops
|
||
are comparatively easy to grow on them provided they are properly fertilized.
|
||
C u ltivation — In India, trees are raised from seedlings, the seeds usually having a chilling
|
||
requirement. Seeds are sown in nurseries, the seedlings transplanted after about one year.
|
||
For special types, as in the U.S., scions are budded or grafted on to bitter or sweet almond,
|
||
apricot, myrobalan, peach, or plum seedlings. Trees are planted 6 to 8 m apart and irrigated,
|
||
in spite of their drought tolerance. Application of nitrogenous and/or organic fertilizers is
|
||
said to improve yield. Trees should be pruned to a modified leader system. All types are
|
||
self-sterile, so cvs or seedlings should be mixed.
|
||
H arvestin g — Fruits occur mainly on shoot spurs, which remain productive up to five
|
||
years. Bearing trees may be pruned of surplus branches to about 20% of the old-bearing
|
||
wood. Tree exhibiting decline may be severely cut back at the top. In India, the trees bear
|
||
from July to September. Fruits are harvested when the flesh splits open exposing the stone.
|
||
The flesh is then removed from the stones manually or by machine.
|
||
Y ield s and econ om ics — In 1971, commercial almond production in the U. S. was centered
|
||
in California, which produced more than 99% of the domestic marketed nuts. California’s
|
||
production of in-shell nuts during the 1960s nearly tripled. It reached about 140,000 in-shell
|
||
tons in 1970. Only sweet almonds are grown commercially. Imports, largely from Spain
|
||
and Italy, vary widely from year to year, ranging from about 280 to 1,700 tons on the in
|
||
shell basis for the past 7 years. The U.S. imported 67,252 kg of bitter almond oil worth
|
||
$271,600 in 1981, 354 kg from Canada worth $1,300, 48,470 kg from France worth
|
||
$221,300, 998 kg from Haiti worth $2,600, 17,400 kg from Spain worth $46,000, and 30
|
||
kg from Switzerland worth $400. On August 2, 1982,^^^ posted prices were ca. $7.70/kg
|
||
of natural bitter almond, and $2.64/kg of sweet almond. Dealers in bitter almond oil include:
|
||
Berge Chemical Products, Inc. Florasynth, Inc.
|
||
5 Lawrence Street 410 E. 62nd Street
|
||
Bloomfield, NJ 07003 New York, NY 10021
|
||
Hagelin & Co., Inc. International Sourcing, Inc.
|
||
241 Cedar Knolls Road 555 Route 17 S.
|
||
Cedar Knolls, NJ 07927 Ridgewood, NJ 07450
|
||
Dealers in sweet almond oil include:
|
||
Berje Chemical Products, Inc. Lipo Chemicals, Inc.
|
||
5 Lawrence Street 207 Nineteenth Avenue
|
||
Bloomfield, NJ 07003 Paterson, NJ 07504
|
||
Mutchler Chemical Co., Inc. PPF Norda Inc.
|
||
99 Kinderkamack Road 140 Rt. 10
|
||
Westwood, NJ 07675 East Hanover, NJ 07936
|
||
252 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
Energy — According to The W ealth o f I n d i a , average California yields are ca. 400
|
||
kg/ha, but they attain over 1,200 kg/ha. However, for Baluchistan, WOI reports 2,375 kg/ha,
|
||
basing this on an optimistic yield of 7.3 kg for each of 325 trees per ha. Yields of 2 to 3
|
||
kg per tree seem more realistic; Duke,®^ however, reports seed yields of 3000 kg/ha. With
|
||
an oil yield of 50 to 55%, it is easy to project oil yields of 1500 kg/ha. With recommended
|
||
pruning to 20% of the old-bearing wood, several MT firewood should be available from the
|
||
pruning. Analyzing 62 kinds of biomass for heating value, Jenkins and Ebeling*'^^ reported
|
||
a spread of 20.01 to 18.93 MJ/kg, compared to 13.76 for weathered rice straw to 23.28
|
||
MJ/kg for prune pits. On a percent DM basis, the orchard prunings of almond contained
|
||
76.83% volatiles, 1.63% ash, 21.54% fixed carbon, 51.30% C, 5.29% H, 40.90% O, 0.66%
|
||
N, 0.01% S, 0.04% Cl, and undetermined residue. The hulls, showing a spread of 17.13
|
||
to 18.22 MJ/kg, contained 71.33% volatiles, 5.78% ash, 22.89% fixed carbon, 45.79% C,
|
||
5.36% H, 40.60% O, 0.96% N, 0.01% S, 0.08% Cl, and undetermined residue. The shells,
|
||
with a spread of 18.17 to 19.38 MJ/kg, contained 73.45% volatiles, 4.81% ash, 21.74%
|
||
fixed carbon, 44.98% C, 5.97% H, 42.27% O, 1.16% N, 0.02% S, and undetermined
|
||
residue.
|
||
Biotic factors — Prominent diseases in India include “ shot hole” caused by C laster-
|
||
osporium carpophilum (Lev.) Aderh., “ white spongy rot” due to F om es lividus Kl, “ brown
|
||
patchy leaf rot’ ’ due to P h yllosticta pru nicola (Spiz) Sacc., ‘ ‘brown rot’ ’ due to Sphaerotheca
|
||
pannosa (Walk.) Lev. and a mosaic disease due to virus; all plague the almond. The
|
||
chrysomelid M im astra cyanura Hope and the almond weevil M ylloceru s laetivirens Marshall
|
||
feed on the leaves. The San Jose scale Q uadraspidiotus pern iciosu s Comstock is a minor
|
||
problem. The almond moth E phestia cautella Wlk. infests shelled almonds and dried apricot,
|
||
currant, date, fig, peach, and plum.
|
||
253
|
||
QUERCUS SURER L. (FAGACEAE) Cork Oak
|
||
Syn.: Quercus occidentalis Gay
|
||
Uses — Bark provides the cork of commerce, used for bungs and stoppers for bottles
|
||
and other containers, life preservers, mats, ring buoys, floats, shoe inner-sole liners, artificial
|
||
limbs, sealing liners for bottle caps, novelties, switch-boxes, household appliances and
|
||
friction rolls, gaskets of various types for automobiles, electric motors, polishing wheels,
|
||
cork-board, and for insulation, acoustical, and machinery isolation purposes. It is also used
|
||
in the manufacture of linoleum. The hard wax extracted from the cork waste is used for
|
||
making shoe pastes.Acorns provide forage for hogs, and the orchards are profitably
|
||
grazed as well by sheep and goats.Acorns may be eaten, especially when roasted, in
|
||
cases of necessity.Acorns of all oaks can be converted into “ edible nuts” , but in the
|
||
bitter species much work is involved, compared to the “ sweet oaks” like Quercus prinos.
|
||
Folk medicine — No data available.
|
||
Chemistry — Age, growing conditions, and grades of the bark determine the chemical
|
||
composition of cork. A good specimen conforms to the following values: 3 to 7% moisture,
|
||
20 to 38% fatty acids, 10 to 18% other acids, 2.0 to 6.5% tannins, 1.0 to 6.5% glycerin,
|
||
12.6 to 18.0% lignin, 1.8 to 5.0% cellulose, 4.5 to 15.0% ceroids (waxes, stearins, etc.),
|
||
0.1 to 4.0% ash, 8 to 21% other substances. Suberin, the characteristic constituent of cork,
|
||
is composed mainly of high-molecular polymerides of hydroxy fatty acids, the major com
|
||
ponent being phellonic acid (22-hydroxy docosanoic). Other fatty acids present are phloionic
|
||
(9,10-dihydroxy octadecanediotic), phloionolic (9,10,18-trihydroxy octadecanoic) and its
|
||
stereoisomer (m.p. 133°), cis- and trans-9-octadecenoic, 18-hydroxy-9-octadecenoic, and
|
||
several unidentified acids. Crude cork wax contains cerin (chief constituent), friedelin,
|
||
steroids, acids, etc.^® Suberin is a mixture containing several acids, including phloionic acid
|
||
(C18H34O6), acid XX (C18H32O4), phloionolic acid (C18H36O5), acid XVIII (C18H34O3), acid
|
||
V (C18H34O4), phellonic acid (C22H44O3), and phellogenic acid (C22H42O4). The cork wax
|
||
is a mixture of esters and triterpenes (cerin C30H50O2; friedelin C30H50O; betulinic acid,
|
||
betulin, and suberindiol C28H46O2), also tannin, phlobaphen, cellulose, ligin, cyclitol, and
|
||
vanillin. Thus, synthetic vanilla could be a by-product of the cork industry. The bark
|
||
contains much silica.
|
||
254 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
Toxicity — Exposure to the bark is reported to produce a respiratory disorder, suberosis,
|
||
which starts with rhinitis, cough, and dyspnea, and then proceeds to chronic bronchitic
|
||
changes or extrinsic allergic alveolitis.
|
||
Description — Large, subtropical, evergreen tree, to 20 m tall, the trunk circumference
|
||
to 10 m, with thick, corky bark; twigs tomentose. Leaves 3 to 7 cm long, ovate-oblong,
|
||
sinuate-dentate, dark-green above, gray-tomentose beneath; midrib sinuous; petiole 8 to 15
|
||
mm long. Male flowers in aments, female flowers in small clusters on short twigs. Fruit
|
||
ripening in the first year in spring-flowering trees, but some trees flower in autumn and
|
||
ripen their fruits late in the following summer; involucral scales long and patent, the lower
|
||
usually shorter and more appressed.^^®
|
||
Germplasm — Reported from the Mediterranean Center of Diversity, cork oak, or cvs
|
||
thereof, is reported to tolerate drought, high pH, poor soil, and sand.®^ Highly variable,
|
||
with only one type differing sufficiently to be regarded as a subspecies, i.e., Q. occidentalism
|
||
differing principally in its slower maturing acorns, known from the Iberian Peninsula,
|
||
southeastern France, and Corsica. Individual clones have been selected and cultivated in
|
||
many areas, including the (2n = 24.) Among the American oak species, acorns
|
||
of chestnut oak and white oak are most likely to serve as nuts.
|
||
Distribution — Native and forming extensive forests (in the past) from northwestern
|
||
Yugoslavia, west to Spain and Portugal, the islands of the western Mediterranean and north
|
||
Africa (Morocco and Algeria). Introduced and cultivated for cork in eastern India, Japan
|
||
(southern islands), and in southern California. Trees also planted from New Jersey to Florida
|
||
and westward to California for experimental purposes in the late 1940s.^^®
|
||
Ecology — Ranging from Cool Temperate Moist through Tropical Dry Forest Life Zones,
|
||
cork oak is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 3.1 to 13.5 dm (mean of 10 cases
|
||
= 8.2), annual temperature of 9.7 to 26.5°C (mean of 10 cases = 16.3), and pH of 4.9
|
||
to 8.2 (mean of 9 cases = 6.9).®^ Hardy to Zone 7.^"^^ Subtropical climate is essential for
|
||
good bark formation. Trees have withstood temperatures of - 18°C in South Carolina. In
|
||
general, a mean annual temperature of not less than 5°C with range of not lower than 2°C
|
||
and maximum mean annual temperature of 21°C is best for growth. About 57% of cork is
|
||
grown in the 18 to 21 °C region. Trees are quite drought-resistant and do not require irrigation
|
||
after the first few years. Will grow well with 2.5 to 10 dm annual rainfall; optimum is 5 to
|
||
10 dm/year. Grows best in neutral or slightly acid, sandy, well-drained, soils. Trees grow
|
||
from sea-level up to 1,300 m. Though granitic, clay, or slate soils are suggested,Srnith^’®
|
||
says, “ the poorer the soil, the better the cork” .
|
||
Cultivation — Best method of planting is by direct seeding. Ripe acorns are planted in
|
||
groups of 4 or 5 (about 625 groups per ha), each group in a shallow furrow covered to a
|
||
depth of 1.3 cm. The stand is later thinned so that one plant remains at each site. Seeds
|
||
may be germinated in seed-beds and transplanted later, but the seedlings should not be
|
||
disturbed after the taproot has become established. Viability of seeds is short, but can be
|
||
lengthened by wet cold storage at 0.5 to 1.5°C.^^® Requiring no stratification, the seeds
|
||
show 73 to 100% germination after 20 to 30 days at 2TC day and night temperatures.^
|
||
Trees may also be grafted on both evergreen or deciduous native oaks. Techniques for clonal
|
||
cuttings have been worked out.^‘® Older saplings should be thinned to avoid shading. At
|
||
age 50, trees should be thinned to ca. 500 per ha; at 75 years to about half that number; at
|
||
120 years, there should be about 1(X) per ha. With such reduction, overcrowding is avoided
|
||
and cork production per ha is relatively stabilized.
|
||
Harvesting — Cork of commercial value is not produced by trees less than 30 years old.
|
||
Since transplanting of saplings and small trees should not be attempted, and direct seeding
|
||
is practiced, it is impossible to bring trees into production in less than 30 years. First stripping
|
||
of bark may occur when the tree is about 20 years old. This virgin bark or mascalage is
|
||
rough and coarse and of little commercial value. Its removal stimulates the growth of cork
|
||
255
|
||
so that during the succeeding 2 or 3 years, much of the cork is produced. In Algeria, this
|
||
virgin or male bark is put back in place around the tree and held there by wires for 2 years
|
||
or so, thus protecting the new bark that is forming. This growth gradually decreases in rate
|
||
until after about 9 years scarcely any further thickening of the bark is perceptible, and at
|
||
the end of that period, the second stripping takes place. The second and all subsequent
|
||
strippings produce bark of commercial value. At around 120 years, decline sets in. Replanting
|
||
should follow. Harvest is rotated, with only a certain number of trees stripped each year.
|
||
Each tree is stripped, usually at 9-year intervals, but intervals may vary from 6 to 12 years,
|
||
depending on the conditions of growth. If pruning is necessary, trees should not be stripped
|
||
until 3 years after pruning. In North Africa, bark is stripped in winter; in other areas, in
|
||
spring, when the sap is rising to make bark removal easier. Cork stripping requires consid
|
||
erable skill. Bark must be removed without injuring the inner-most layer, which must remain
|
||
to continue growth.Acorns may be borne at age 12, with good crops every 2 to 4 years.
|
||
Yields and economics — Mature trees yield good quantities of cork for 150 to 200 years
|
||
in the Mediterranean region. Trees yield about 1.3 kg of cork per stripping, in California.
|
||
In the Mediterranean, each tree yields from 20 to 240(to 300) kg at each stripping, depending
|
||
on age and size of tree.^^^ Trees are stripped at intervals of 9 to 12 years. About 12 € of
|
||
acorn will yield a kg of pork.^’® In Portugal, a cork oak forest is said to produce 34 kg/ha
|
||
pork compared to
|
||
68 for a Q uercus ilex forest. “ Lard from acom-fed hogs is said not to
|
||
harden; hence they are sometimes finished on com for hardening the fat.’’^^® Portugal is the
|
||
largest producer of cork, supplying 46.2% of the world’s tonnage from 33.8% of the total
|
||
hectarage. There are about 69,000 ha of Portuguese cork oak forests, mainly in the south-
|
||
central portion of the country.Smith^‘® reports 400,000 ha in Portugal producing annually
|
||
240 kg/ha. Between 1931 and 1948, cork was varying widely in price, from $30 to $600/ton.
|
||
Bigger and better trees can yield a ton in one stripping, following another ton 12 years
|
||
earlier. English owners of cork estates in Portugal estimate that acorns alone produce 1/2
|
||
to 2/3 of Portuguese pork. The USDA once said “ one gallon of acorns is equal to ten good
|
||
ears of com.” Pigs may graze the grass and acorns while sheep and goats may graze the
|
||
bushes and shrubs.^*®
|
||
Energy — Felled trees and bigger pmnings make excellent charcoal. With low energy
|
||
input on tough terrain, this seems to be an energy-efficient land-holding scenario yielding
|
||
cork, firewood, pork, and land stability.
|
||
Biotic factors — The following fungi have been reported on the cork oak: A rm illariella
|
||
m ellea, A scoch yta irpina, A spergillus terreus, A . w entii, A uricularia m esenterica, C halara
|
||
quercina, C litocybe olearia, C occom yces dentatus, C oriolus pergam enus, C. versicolor,
|
||
C yphella Candida, C ytospora m icrospora, D aedalea biennis, D iatrypella quercina, E ndothis
|
||
gyrosa, G anoderm a applanatum , H irneola auricula ju d a e, H ypoxy Ion m editerraneum , Irpex
|
||
deform is, Ithyphallus im perialis, /. im pudicis, L enzites quercina, L eptoporus adustus, L.
|
||
dichrous, L eucoporus brum alis, M erulium trem ellosus, M ucor ram annianus, M ycoleptodon
|
||
ochraceum , P anus conchatus, P eniphora corticalis, P hellinus igniarius, P . torulosus, Pho-
|
||
liota cylin dricea, P. spectabilis, Phom a quercella, P hysalospora elegans, P hytophthora
|
||
cinnam om i, P leurotu s lignatilis, P. ostreatus, P olyporu s giganteus, P o ria vaporaria. P ro
|
||
p o lis fa g in ea , R adulum quercinum , Schizophyllum com m une, Sebacina crozalsii, S eptoria
|
||
ocellata, S. qu ercicola, Sphaerotheca lanestris, Stereum fuscum , S. gausapatum , S. spad-
|
||
iceum, Tom entella fu sca , T. rubiginosa, Tom entellina bom bycina, T ram etes cam pestris, T.
|
||
cinnabarina, T. serialis var. resupinata, Ungulina fom en taria, U. ochroleuca, U redo qu er
|
||
cus, V olvaria bom bycina, Vuillem inia com edens, X anthochrous cuticularis, X . ribis. The
|
||
following nematodes have been isolated from this oak: C aconem a radicicola and H eterodera
|
||
256 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
RICINODENDRON HEUDELOTII Pierre (EUPHORBIACEAE) Manketti Nut, Sanga
|
||
Nut, Essang Nut, Ojuk Nut
|
||
Syn.: Ricinodendron africanum Muell. Arg.
|
||
Uses — Source of essang oil, seeds contain 35 to 55% oil, which has been recommended
|
||
in the drying oil industries. The nuts are consumed as food after boiling. Dried kernels are
|
||
ground and cooked with food, e,g., in the Cameroons. The kernels only account for ca.
|
||
30% of the fruit, the hard shell is difficult to remove. Wild animals, including elephants,
|
||
are fond of the fallen fruits, leading hunters to lie in wait beneath the trees. Ashes of the
|
||
wood are used for salt and in the preparation of soap and indigo. Williams^"^ describes the
|
||
use of this species as living telegraph poles. Stakes 6 to 10 m long are cut and placed in
|
||
holes. During the rainy season, the stake quickly strikes root. Wires are placed on the poles
|
||
6 or more meters above the ground as soon as they are firm. Branches tend to sprout only
|
||
at the summit, rarely interfering with the wires. The wood, quite light, has been suggested
|
||
as a substitute for balsa. Easily carved, it is used for utensils, masks, musical instruments,
|
||
boxes, coffins, etc. The hard seeds are used, like marbles, in games, rattles, etc. The very
|
||
light sawdust is suitable for life jackets and pith helmets.
|
||
Folk medicine — Nigerians use the root-bark, with pepper and salt, for constipation. On
|
||
257
|
||
the Ivory Coast, the decoction is drunk for dysentery. Pounded and warmed bark is applied
|
||
locally for elephantiasis. The bark infusion is used in Liberia to relieve labor pains and
|
||
prevent miscarriage, in the belief that it prevents sterility. The pulped bark prevents abortion.
|
||
The bark decoction is used for gonorrhea; the leaf decoction as a beverage or bath in calming
|
||
fever."^^’^"^^
|
||
Chemistry — The seed fatty acids of R. africanum include ca. 50% eleostearic acid with
|
||
ca. 25% linoleic-, 10% oleic-, and 10% saturated acids.The seed, seed shell, and latex,
|
||
containing a resin, are used for diarrhea and gonorrhea.^^^
|
||
Description — Fast-growing, deciduous tree to 33 m or more high and up to 2.5 m girth;
|
||
buttresses very short, branches whorled. Leaves alternate, hairy when young, with stellate
|
||
hairs, digitately lobed, the 3 to 5 leaflets up to 25 x 15 cm, sessile, obovate-elliptic,
|
||
acuminate, narrowed to base, with 10 to 16 pairs of lateral nerves, petioles up to 20 cm
|
||
long, stipules persistent and leaf-like; flowers paniculate (December to April in Africa), the
|
||
inflorescence yellow-tomentose, white, falling readily. Fruits 3-celled, ca. 2.5 cm in di
|
||
ameter. Seeds ovoid, rich in oil.
|
||
Germplasm — From the Africa Center of Diversity, the essang nut seems to tolerate
|
||
savanna, second growth, slopes, and weeds.
|
||
Distribution — Widespread in tropical Africa. Fast-growing native of the secondary
|
||
forests of the Belgian Congo and possibly also of Nigeria.Irvinedescribes it as common
|
||
in fringing, deciduous, and secondary forests, from Guinea to Angola and the Belgian Congo
|
||
to Sudan, Uganda, and East Africa.
|
||
Ecology — With no ecological data available to me, I speculate that this species ranges
|
||
from Subtropical Thom Woodland to Moist through Tropical Thom Woodland to Moist
|
||
Forest Life Zones, tolerating annual precipitation of 3 to 25 dm, annual temperature of 23
|
||
to 29°C, and pH of 6 to 8.^^ According to Williams,it requires a wet, humid climate.
|
||
Cultivation — Coppicing and rooting readily, this tree is often planted as cuttings for
|
||
vine stakes, living fences, and telephone poles.
|
||
Harvesting — Said to bear fmit in its 7th to 10th year.^^
|
||
Yields and economics — Irvine describes the nut yields as prolific.
|
||
Energy — The wood does not make good firewood, but “ it is much used for fuel” .
|
||
Seeds yield 45 to 47% oil which could be used for energy, but because of the high husk/kemel
|
||
ratio, the fmits yield only ca. 14% oil.
|
||
Biotic factors — According to a forester quoted by Menninger,^^ elephants eat the fmits
|
||
greedily, and “ seed will not germinate until it has spent a week in the elephant” , but even
|
||
the elephant’s digestive system barely affects the fmit and the enclosed kernel. “ The natives
|
||
of Rhodesia, therefore, follow the elephant, recover the hard-shelled nuts where they have
|
||
been dropped, clean and dry them, then crack the extremely hard shell, and find the contents
|
||
perfectly delicious. This story is a bit grizzly, but it is part of the nut story. The fungus
|
||
Fomes lignosus is reported to attack this species.
|
||
258 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
RICINODENDRONRAUTANENII Schinz (EUPHORBIACEAE) — Mogongo Nut, Manketti
|
||
Uses — A much-prized species with edible fruits that are a staple food of Africans and
|
||
Bushmen, who eat them raw (fresh or fried), cooked, or fermented into a beer. The thin,
|
||
fleshy portion, under the tough skin, may be eaten raw or cooked into a sweet porridge.
|
||
The kernel has a sweet, milky, nutty flavor; eaten raw, pounded and fried, or mixed with
|
||
lean meat. The seeds can be roasted whole, cracked, and the kernels pounded into a coarse
|
||
meal, which is eaten dry, with meat, with other roots, or mixed with baobab pulp. It is the
|
||
main food (constituting half of the vegetable diet) of the Bushmen in the Dobe area. One
|
||
to three hundred nuts are consumed every day for all but a few months of the year. Also a
|
||
staple food of elephants. The timber is yellowish, light, and soft, and is used for carving
|
||
bowls, cups, ashtrays, and ornamental figures of animals and birds. Also used for floats,
|
||
dart and drawing boards, packing-cases, boxes, toys, insulating material, and coffins. Trees
|
||
are often hollow and collect life-saving water. It is believed, in South West Africa and
|
||
Botswana, that this species controls the weather, so that it is never struck by lightning.
|
||
During one study of the !Kung Bushmen, mongongo nuts contributed 56.7 g protein per
|
||
day per bushman, compared to 34.5 g from meat, and only 1.9 from other vegetable foods.
|
||
To the !Kung, the mongongo nut is “ basically the staff of life“ .*^"^ The light timber is used
|
||
for furniture, coffins, and an inferior paper.
|
||
Folk medicine — The fruits are astringent.
|
||
Chemistry — The average daily per capita consumption of 300 nuts weighs ca. 212.6 g
|
||
but contains the caloric equivalent of 1,134 g cooked rice and the protein equivalent of
|
||
396.9 g lean beef. Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk^^^ say the fruits contain 7.9% protein and
|
||
no true starch. Fruits yield 30 to 40% oil, kernels 57 to 63%. Skins of the kernel yield 37%
|
||
oil. The oil cake has only 0.32 mg vitamin B^ and 0.7 mg calcium pantothenase per 100
|
||
g. The percentages of amino acid in the seed protein are calculated at 2.6% histidine, 4.1%
|
||
cystine, 7.9% isoleucine, 6.2% leucine, 5.1% lysine, 2.0% methionine, 4.6% phenylalanine,
|
||
7.9% threonine, 1.2% tryptophane, and 7.1% valine.The seed fatty acids of the related
|
||
R. africanum (“ essang oil” ) include ca. 50% eleostearic acid with ca. 25% linoleic-, 10%
|
||
oleic-, and 10% saturated acids. The aromatic fruit contains a gum-resin and 31% saccharose.
|
||
Toxicity — The seed coat is nontoxic to rats when constituting 10% of diet, but it is an
|
||
unsuitable food because of its toughness and indigestibility.
|
||
Description — Spreading, deciduous, dioecious tree to 10(to 24) m tall, the trunk to 1
|
||
m in diameter; the bark greenish or goldish; twigs and branches, stubby with glabrescent
|
||
robust young twigs. Leaves alternate, stipulate, digitately compound, with 3 to 7 leaflets;
|
||
petioles pubescent, to 15 cm long; leaflets broadly lanceolate to ovate, apically blunt or
|
||
rounded, basally rounded or truncately inequilateral, marginally glandular denticulate, rarely
|
||
lobulate, 5 to 13 cm long, 2.5 to 9 cm broad; dark-green above, pale below, with stellate
|
||
hairs on both surfaces, the midribs and veins rufose; petiolules biglandular. Male flowers
|
||
in slender loose panicles, whitish, the female panicles shorter and few-flowered. Fruits plum
|
||
shaped, to 4 cm long, hairy when young, the stone exceedingly hard, containing one or two
|
||
light-colored kernels.
|
||
Germplasm — Reported from the African Center of Diversity, mogongo nut, or cvs
|
||
thereof, is reported to tolerate sands and savannas.
|
||
Distribution — Northern southwest Africa, Botswana, Zimbabwe, and Mozambique,
|
||
and often tropical Africa; grows in groves or forests together on wooded hills and dunes,
|
||
and always on Kalahari sand. Makes almost pure forest in parts.
|
||
Ecology — With no ecological data available to me, I speculate that this species ranges
|
||
from Subtropical Thom Woodland to Moist through Tropical Thom Woodland to Moist
|
||
Forest Life Zones, tolerating annual precipitation of 3 to 25 dm, annual temperature of 23
|
||
to 29°C, and pH of 6 to 8.®^ Tending to flower in spring before rain.
|
||
259
|
||
Cultivation — Not normally cultivated.
|
||
Harvesting — According to Harlan,'^'* women and children are primarily involved in
|
||
gathering plant materials among the !Kung Bushmen. But adults gather the mongongo nuts.
|
||
Over a 3-week study period, the Bushmen averaged 2V2 days a week (average 6 hr work
|
||
per day) devoted to subsistence activities. Compared to hunting, gathering is a low-risk,
|
||
high-return enterprise. Fruits ripen ca. February in southern Africa.
|
||
Yields and economics — Before the war of 1914-1918, Germans granted a concession
|
||
to exploit the forests near Tsumeb in Southwest Africa, which were estimated to yield 50,000
|
||
tons of nuts per year.^"*^
|
||
Energy — If there are forests with 50,000 tons^"^^ of edible nuts therein, the kernels
|
||
yielding 60% oil, one could theoretically obtain 30,(XX) tons of oil, and 20,0(X) tons defatted
|
||
edible nuts therefrom.
|
||
Biotic factors — Fruits greatly relished by elephants.
|
||
260 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
SANTALUM ACUMINATUM A. DC. (SANTALACEAE) — Quandong Nut, Native Peach
|
||
Uses — It’s easier for me to remember the popular name Quandong than Eucarya,
|
||
Fusanus, or Santalum, the three generic names among which the quandong has been ca
|
||
tegorized. Both the fruit or (“ peach” ) and nut (or “ quandong” ) are edible. The red flesh
|
||
is cooked in chutneys, jams, and pies. The nut is said to be quite tasty, slightly roasted,
|
||
and was a favored food of the aborigines. Pierced with a stick as a candle-nut, the seeds
|
||
will bum away with a clear light. Nuts are also made into bracelets, necklaces, and other
|
||
ornaments. The hard, durable close-grained timber is used for cabinet making and wood
|
||
engraving.
|
||
Folk medicine — The seed oil is used medicinally.
|
||
Chemistry — Per 100 g, the fmit is reported to contain 345 kJ, 76.7 g H2O, 1.7 g
|
||
protein, 0.2 g fat, 19.3 g carbohydrate, 2.1 g ash, 42 mg Ca, 40 mg Mg, 0.2 mg Zn, 0.2
|
||
mg Cu, 51 mg Na, and 659 mg Data in Menninger, no doubt reflecting dry nuts, report
|
||
60% oil and 25% protein. The fmits are rich in vitamin C. Fatty acids in the seed contain
|
||
oleic, linoleic, and stearic acids, also santalbinic acid.^®^ Some estimates put the “ santalbic”
|
||
261
|
||
content at 40 to 43%. Others say the seed fat is mostly oleic acid except for 3 to 4% palmitic
|
||
acid.*^® Wood contains 5% essential oil containing nerolidol.
|
||
Description — A tall shrub or a tree to 10 m. Leaves opposite, lanceolate, acute, or
|
||
sometimes when young with a short hooked point, mostly 5 to 7.5 cm long, tapering into
|
||
a petiole 4 to 6 mm long, coriaceous, with the lateral veins often prominent when old.
|
||
Flowers rather numerous, in a terminal pyramidal panicle scarcely longer than the leaves.
|
||
Perianth spreading to ca. 5 mm diameter, the lobes somewhat concave even when open.
|
||
Free margin of the disk very prominent, broadly rounded between the stamens which curve
|
||
over the notches. Anthers very short. Style exceedingly short and conical or scarcely any,
|
||
with deeply 2- or 3-lobed stigma. Fruit globular, 10 to 20 mm in diameter, with a succulent
|
||
epicarp, and bony pitted endocarp, the perianth-lobes persisting on the top until the fruit is
|
||
nearly or quite ripe.^^
|
||
Germplasm — Reported from the Australian Center of Diversity, Quandong, or cvs
|
||
thereof, is reported to tolerate arid conditions and drought.
|
||
Distribution — Endemic to Australia, especially northern Australia, and the southwest,
|
||
extending into the desert areas.
|
||
Ecology — No data available.
|
||
Cultivation — Rosengarten comments on an experimental plantation in Quom, Australia.
|
||
Kikuya grass was planted to serve as root host.
|
||
Harvesting — Some plantation trees have fruited in the third year.
|
||
Yields and economics — Rosengarten sums it up, “ Despite its captivating tang, the
|
||
quandong seems destined to remain a minor Australian nut.“ ^^"^
|
||
Energy — Serving as candle-nuts, quandongs are so abundant in part of Australia that
|
||
they might serve as oil-seeds in the future.
|
||
Biotic factors — No data available.
|
||
262 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
SAPlUMSEBIFERUMiL.) Roxb. (EUPHORBIACEAE) — Chinese Tallow Tree, Vegetable
|
||
Tallow, White Wax Berry
|
||
S yn .: Carumbium sebiferum K u rz, Croton sebiferus L ., Excoecaria sebifera M u ell.,
|
||
Stillingia sebifera M ich x ., Triadica sebifera (L .) Sm all
|
||
Uses — Chinese Tallow Tree is cultivated for its seeds as a source of vegetable tallow,
|
||
a drying oil and protein food, and as an ornamental. Fruits yield two types of fats: outer
|
||
covering of seeds contain a solid fat with low iodine value, known as Chinese Vegetable
|
||
Tallow; kernels produce a drying oil with high iodine value, called Stillingia Oil. Tallow
|
||
is used for manufacturing candles, a layer of wax being placed over the tallow body to
|
||
prevent too-rapid burning; has excellent burning quality, and gives an inodorous, clear,
|
||
bright flame; also used for making soap, cloth dressing, and fuel. Pure tallow fat is known
|
||
in commerce as Pi-yu. Oil is used in making varnishes and native paints because of its
|
||
quick-drying properties, in machine oils and as a crude lamp oil. Pure oil expressed from
|
||
the inner part of the seeds is known in commerce as Ting-yu. Oil-cakes made from crushed
|
||
seeds with tallow and oil together is known as Mou-yu. Residual cake, after oil is expressed,
|
||
is used as manure, particularly for tobacco fields. Wood is white and close-grained, suitable
|
||
for carving and used for making blocks in Chinese printing; also used for furniture making
|
||
and incense. Chinese prepare a black dye by boiling leaves in alum water. Tree grows
|
||
rapidly, develops an attractive crown, and, as leaves turn red in fall, it is cultivated as a
|
||
shade or lawn tree about houses. It is used as a soil binder along roads and canals. Chinese
|
||
place an insect on the tree to feed; it lays eggs in the seed, making some of the “jumping
|
||
beans,” because of movements of larvae inside.
|
||
263
|
||
Folk medicine — In Chinese medicine, oil is used as purgative and emetic, not as a
|
||
usual vegetable oil for humans. Overdose of native medicine probably would cause violent
|
||
sickness and perhaps death. Additionally, Chinese use the plant as an alexeteric, suppurative,
|
||
and vulnerary, especially for edema and skin ailments. Decoction of the root bark is used
|
||
for dyspepsia, considered tonic. Resin from root bark considered purgative. The latex is an
|
||
acrid and powerful vesicant.
|
||
Chemistry — The fatty acid composition of the oil is caprylic, 1.50; capric, 1.00; myristic,
|
||
0.97; palmitic, 2.80; stearic, 1.00; oleic, 9.40; linoleic, 53.40; and linolenic, 30.00%. A
|
||
Hong Kong sample contained 26.8% oil, with: capric, traces; palmitic, 7; stearic, 3; 2,4-
|
||
decadienoic, 5; oleic, 7; linoleic, 24; and linolenic, 54%. Stillingia oil is considered superior
|
||
to linseed oil in its drying and polymerizing properties, probably due to the presence of 2,4-
|
||
decadienoic acid. Seed meal, left after the extraction of oil, possesses a high content of
|
||
protein, and is a valuable feed and fertilizer. It can be processed into a refined flour,
|
||
containing 75% protein, fit for human consumption. The amino acid composition of the
|
||
protein is as follows: arginine, 16.6; aspartic acid, 11.7; cistine, 1.3; glycine, 4.9; glutamic
|
||
acid, 17.3; histidine, 2.9; leucine, 7.4; lycine, 2.6; methionine, 1.6; tyrosine, 3.7; and
|
||
valine, 7.8%. The Vitamin B content of the flour compares favorably with that of wheat-
|
||
flour. The flour, supplemented with lysine and methionine, is reported to be superior to
|
||
wheat-flour. Ethanol extraction of powdered root bark yielded 0.1% phloracetophenone 2,4-
|
||
dimethylether, and methanol extraction gave xanthoxylin (C10H12O4). The bark also contains
|
||
moretenone, moretenol and a new triterpene, 3-epimoretenol (m.p., 223 to 24°). Leaves
|
||
contain gallic and ellagic acids, isoquercitrin, and tannin (5.5%).^^**^^’^^^
|
||
Description — Small to large deciduous tree, 10 to 13 m tall (in 30 years), often with
|
||
a gnarled trunk, bark gray to whitish-gray with vertical cracks; stem exudes a milky poisonous
|
||
juice. Leaves alternate, broad rhombic to ovate, 3.5 to 8.5 cm long, 4 to 9 cm wide, cordate-
|
||
acuminate at apex, usually round at base, turning orange to scarlet in autumn, falling early
|
||
in the cold season; petioles 1.5 to 7 cm long, with 2 conspicuous glands at apex and on
|
||
each side of scale-like bracts. Flowers monoecious, greenish-yellow, in terminal spikes, 5
|
||
to 10 cm long. Fruit a capsule, subglobose, 0.95 to 1.7 cm in diameter, 3-valved, with
|
||
three seeds coated with a white wax. Seeds half-ovate, 0.6 to 1.0 cm long, 0.43 to 0.6 cm
|
||
wide, 0.5 to 0.77 cm thick, with an acrid penetrating taste. Flowers April to June; fruit
|
||
ripens September to October.
|
||
Germplasm — Of the many cvs grown, more than 100 are found in Taiwan. Two main
|
||
types are ‘Eagle-Claw’ and ‘Grape’, varying according to form of fruit-spikes, fruit-sprigs,
|
||
fruit-stalks, and maturing period. Native to the China-Japan Center of Diversity, tallow tree
|
||
is reported to tolerate some frost, grazing, slopes, waterlogging, and weeds. (2n = 36,40.)®^*^^^
|
||
Distribution — Native to many provinces of central China, especially north of the Yangtze
|
||
Valley, and Japan. Chinese tallow tree is also cultivated there and on Hainan Island, Hong
|
||
Kong, Taiwan,and Korea. It has been introduced into Sri Lanka (where naturalized),
|
||
Indochina, Bengal, India, Sudan, Martinique, southern U.S. (S. California, S. Arizona, and
|
||
Texas to Florida, north to South Carolina), southern France and Algeria.
|
||
Ecology — Ranging from Warm Temperate Dry to Moist through Tropical Dry Forest
|
||
Life Zones, tallow tree is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 6.6 to 15.2 dm (to 37)
|
||
(mean of 6 cases = 11.3), annual temperature of 14.7 to 24.3°C (mean of 6 cases = 18.1),
|
||
and pH of 5.5 to 7.8 (mean of 5 cases = 6.7).®^ Adapted for growing on canal banks, on
|
||
steep mountain slopes, granite hills, or sandy beaches, it grows in weakly alkaline soils,
|
||
saline or strongly acid soils. Said to thrive in alluvial forests, on low alluvial plains, and
|
||
on rich leaf-molds, growing best in well-drained clayey-peat soils. Favorable climatic con
|
||
ditions are mean air temperatures of 12.5 to 30.1°C, and an annual precipitation from 13
|
||
to 37 dm. It is generally a subtropical to warm temperate plant, hardy and able to withstand
|
||
a few degrees of frost; unripened twigs are susceptible to frost injury. It grows at elevations
|
||
100 to 800 m."'"’278
|
||
264 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
Cultivation — Propagated by seed, cuttings, layering or top-grafting on seedling stock.
|
||
Seed usually sown in late autumn or early spring. Seedlings in the first year may grow 0.3
|
||
to 0.9 m in height and should be transplanted. When seedlings are about 1 m tall (in the
|
||
spring of the third year), they should be planted out in permanent areas. Tree grows rapidly,
|
||
5 to 8.5 m tall with DBH of 13 to 17 cm in 10 years, and 10 to 13 m tall with DBH 30 to
|
||
40 cm in 20 to 30 years. When cultivated, trees are grown in plantations or transplanted to
|
||
borders of fields or canals, so as not to interfere with the cultivation of the soil. Chinese
|
||
also make cuttings by breaking small branches and twigs, care being taken not to tear or
|
||
wound the bark. These are layered and rooted.
|
||
Harvesting — Fruits and seeds, about the size of a pea, are harvested by hand in November
|
||
and December when leaves have fallen. Plants require from 3 to 8 years to bear, but then
|
||
continue to bear for years, averaging 70 to 100 years. Trees attain full size in 10 to 12
|
||
years. Seed can be threshed from the tree and collected by hand (once estimated at less than
|
||
$.03/kg). Mechanical methods may be readily adapted to the harvest. When fruit is harvested
|
||
by hand in midwinter, they are cut off with their twigs with a sharp, crescent-shaped knife
|
||
attached to the end of a long pole, which is held in the hand and pushed upward against
|
||
the twigs. The capsules are pounded gently in a mortar to loosen the seeds from the shells,
|
||
from which they are separated by sifting.
|
||
Yields and economics — In plantations trees should be planted one rod apart each way,
|
||
giving 400 trees per hectare, and if trimmed to a convenient size for hand harvesting, would
|
||
yield 14 MT seed per ha, containing 2.6 MT oil, 2.8 MT tallow, 1.5 MT protein concentrate,
|
||
1.1 MT fibrous coat, and 4.5 MT shell. Oil, tallow, and protein meal would bring about
|
||
$750 per hectare. This yield could increase with age. Scheld et al.^^^ report yields of 4,000
|
||
to 10,000 kg/ha (in excess of 11,000 kg/ha in VODF Seminar IP^^), and cite estimates of
|
||
25 barrels of oil per year as a sustained energy yield. Tallow is separated by placing the
|
||
seed in hot water, thereby melting the tallow which floats on the surface, or by melting
|
||
tallow with steam and collecting it when it drips off. Solvent extraction of the tallow from
|
||
the seed is also used; tallow still adhering to the seed is removed by an alkali treatment.
|
||
The fairly thick hard shell prevents extraction of the oil inside, so that the seed is crushed
|
||
and Stillingia Oil is obtained by pressing or solvent extraction. According to one report,
|
||
seed contains about 20% oil, 24% tallow, 11% extracted meat, 8% fibrous coat, and 37%
|
||
shell. Yields of Stillingia Oil as high as 53% of the kernel have been reported in some
|
||
varieties. Seed yields vary with the variety and age-gradations of the trees — a tree averaging
|
||
at 5 years of age 0.453 kg, at 10 years, 3.379 kg, and at 20 years, 11.989 kg, with yields
|
||
gradually decreasing after that. White meal, obtained by the extraction of the kernel, has a
|
||
pleasant nut-like flavor, and contains 76% protein. Flour and protein of Chinese tallow nut
|
||
contain vitamin B (thiamine). In China and other Oriental countries, as in other regions of
|
||
the world, large quantities of tallow and oil are extracted annually from this tree. Tallow
|
||
mills are erected where the tree is extensively grown. In addition to its economic value
|
||
(from $750/ha for the oil, tallow, and protein), the tree is extensively propagated for or
|
||
namental purposes alone in Houston, Texas.
|
||
Energy — Coppicing well, the tree grows rapidly, the mean annual girth increment 2.6
|
||
to 5.2 cm. The wood, weighing only 513 kg/m^ is used for fuel. With some tolerance to
|
||
salt, the tallow trees should be investigated as energy crops for saline situations. Scheld^^^
|
||
reports standing dry wood mass on 4-year plantations at >40 MT/ha, or more than 10
|
||
MT/ha/yr. Princen,^^^ assuming an annual oil yield of 25 barrels per hectare, estimates that
|
||
only 24 million hectares of oilseeds (like Sapium) would be required to produce a replacement
|
||
for the ca. 8% of our petroleum usage which goes into chemical production. That means
|
||
300 million ha could replace all our petroleum usage (ca. 35% of Brazil, 108% of Argentina,
|
||
32% of the U.S.). Specific gravity of the wood ranges from 0.37 to 0.48 (mean 0.44) in
|
||
samples from 18- to 24-year-old trees. Energy values range from 7,226 to 7,835 Btu/lb
|
||
265
|
||
(mean 7,586). Rapidity of coppicing, taproot production, drought and salt tolerance, and
|
||
rapid growth rate are attributes leading Scheld and Cowles to regard the tree as a promising
|
||
biomass candidate (in the warm coastal region of the U.S.) which can be established over
|
||
large acreages by conventional agricultural planting methods and which can provide woody
|
||
biomass for direct burning or conversion to charcoal, ethanol, or methanol.
|
||
B iotic F actors — Flowers are favored by honey-bees, and fruits are readily eaten by
|
||
birds, including domestic fowl. It has been considered a desirable plant for bird-food. The
|
||
tree is remarkably free of insect pests. The root-knot nematode, M eloidogyne ja va n ica , has
|
||
been reported.Fungi known to attack this tree include: C ercospora stillin giae, C litocybe
|
||
tabescens, D endrophthoe fa lca ta , P hyllactina corylea, P hyllosticta stillin giae, and Phy-
|
||
m atotrichum om nivorum . ^^^ ^78
|
||
266 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
SCHLEICHERA OLEOSA (Lour.) Merr. (SAPINDACEAE) — Lac Tree, Kusum Tree,
|
||
Malay Lac-Tree, Honey-Tree, Ceylon Oak
|
||
S yn .: Schleichera trijuga W illd ., Pistacia oleosa L our.
|
||
U ses — Seeds of the Lac tree are source of Macassar Oil, used in ointments, for candles,
|
||
for illumination, as a lubricant for machinery, and in Madura for Batik work. Seeds yield
|
||
about 40% of an edible oil or fat, sometimes used for culinary purposes and as a hair oil.
|
||
Seeds also are eaten raw or roasted. Unripe fruits are pickled, and fruit may be eaten when
|
||
other food supplies are scarce. The ripe fruits, often eaten during the summer, have whitish
|
||
pulp and pleasant, acidic taste. Young leaves are eaten with rice. Young shoots are eaten;
|
||
they are also lopped for fodder. Combined with wheat-straw and rape-cake, they make good
|
||
roughage. Wood is close-grained, very hard, heavy, resistant to moisture, whitish with
|
||
heartwood light reddish-brown, taking a fine finish, and used for making mortars, pestles,
|
||
axles and hubs, felloes, and stocks of cart wheels, agricultural implements, such as yokes,
|
||
plows, and teeth of harrows, shafts, violin bows,, screw rollers in sugar mills, in cotton
|
||
and oil presses, tool handles for hammers, axes, and picks. Treated lumber is used for
|
||
construction, cabinet work, beams, rafters, purlilns, trusses, posts, sleepers, and for wagon
|
||
building. In addition, it is used for road paving, block flooring in mills and warehouses,
|
||
pit-props, side-props in shafts and galleries in mines. Bark is employed in tanning; flowers
|
||
yield a dye. Trees serve as host for lac insects.
|
||
F olk m ed icin e — Reported to be anodyne, cyanogenetic, larvicide, and refrigerant, lac
|
||
tree is a folk remedy for acne, backache, bums, fever, inflammation, itch, malaria, neuralgia,
|
||
pleurisy, pneumonia, rheumatism, skin problems, and sores.The bark is reported to cure
|
||
leprosy, skin diseases, inflammation, and ulcers. The unripe fmit is heating to the body,
|
||
heavy to digest, causes biliousness, astringent to the bowels. The ripe fmit is digestible,
|
||
astringent to the bowels, heating, appetite stimulant. The seeds are tonic, increase appetite,
|
||
cure biliousness. The oil is considered a tonic, stomachic, anthelmintic, purgative, cure for
|
||
skin diseases and ulcers. The astringent bark is used as a cure for the itch when mbbed on
|
||
267
|
||
with oil. Oil of the seeds is used as a stimulating agent for the scalp, both cleansing it and
|
||
promoting the growth of hair. The oil is also used as a purgative and as prophylactic against
|
||
cholera; used externally in massage for rheumatism, for the cure of headaches; for skin
|
||
disease. Powdered seeds are applied to ulcers of animals and for removing maggots. Bark
|
||
is applied to swollen glands and ripening boils.Bark is also used for pain in the back and
|
||
loins, inflammation, and ulcers.^®
|
||
Chemistry — Seeds are reported to contain 0.3% HCN; the oil is reported to contain
|
||
1.6% palmitic-, 10.0% stearic-, 19.7% arachidic-, 0.9% palmitoleic-, 52.2% oleic-, 8.5%
|
||
gadoleic-, and 4.0% C22-acid. The oil-cake is reported to contain 5.57% moisture, 22.31%
|
||
protein, 48.53% fat, 14.43% soluble carbohydrates, 5.39% fiber, 3.40% soluble mineral
|
||
matter, 0.37% sand, 3.08% phosphoric acid (P2O5), and 1.3% potash (K2O). Green leaves
|
||
are reported to contain (ZMB) 10.37% crude protein, 1.93% ether extract, 32.34% crude
|
||
fiber, 49.21% N-free extract, 2.42% Ca, 0.71% P, 5.09% gallo-tannic acid. The bark is
|
||
reported to contain 9.4% tannin.^® Another source reports cotyledons to contain 65 to 70%
|
||
oil, with the glycerides composed of lauric-, palmitic-, arachic- (25%), oleic- (ca. 70%),
|
||
butyric-, and lignoceric-acid, and traces of benzaldehyde and hydrocyanic acid, and the bark
|
||
to contain 7% tannins.'®^
|
||
Toxicity — Presumably due to the presence of hydrocyanic acid, the seed and seed oil
|
||
induce symptoms similar to irritant poisons (giddiness, dilation of pupils, and syncope,
|
||
sometimes death).
|
||
Description — Trees 15 to 40 m tall, mostly gnarly and crooked, slow-growing; stems
|
||
furrowed; branches thin, finely short-hairy to subglabrous, leafing and flowering in early
|
||
spring. Leaves alternate, without stipules, 20 to 40 cm long, paripinnate; leaf-rachis sparingly
|
||
finely hairy, 5 to 14.5 cm long; leaflets 4 to 8, opposite, obovate-lanceolate, 2.5 to 25 cm
|
||
long, 1.6 to 11 cm broad, the lowest pair the smallest, obtuse or shortly acuminate, entire,
|
||
coriaceous, glabrescent; young leaves purple; petiolules very sparingly finely hairy to gla
|
||
brous, 1 to 3 mm thick. Inflorescence 1.5 to 13 cm long, on pedicels 2.5 mm long, finely
|
||
short-hairy, the racemes glabrous, apiculate, smooth or spinose; calyx glabrous or nearly
|
||
so, about 1.5 mm in diameter, the segments erect, triangular, acute; disk glabrous, ovary
|
||
thinly pilose, style persistent, after anthesis indurate. Fruit broadly ellipsoid, glabrous with
|
||
thin, hard pericarp, indéhiscent, 1.6 to 2.5 cm long, 1-seeded; seed with a large chalaza;
|
||
aril pulpy, subacid, edible. Flowers spring; fruits fall; January to December in Java.^^*
|
||
Germplasm — Reported from the Hindustani Center of Diversity.®^ Lac tree is reported
|
||
to tolerate shade, frost, and drought. Seedlings should be protected in early stages as they
|
||
are frost-tender.
|
||
Distribution — Native and distributed all over Southeast Asia, from the sub-Himalayan
|
||
region to Nepal, and central and south India, Sri Lanka, Malaya, Burma, Timor, and Java.
|
||
Cultivated in many areas, e.g., near Calcutta and in Java. Introduced in southern California.
|
||
Ecology — Ranging from Tropical Dry to Moist Forest Life Zones, lac tree is reported
|
||
to tolerate annual precipitation of 9 to 15 (to 30) dm and annual temperature of 24 to 25°C.®^
|
||
Lac trees occur in tropical moist to wet evergreen and semi-evergreen forests and in moist
|
||
deciduous teak forests in India, as well as in dry deciduous forests. Trees are not particular
|
||
about soil structure or content. It grows best below 1,000 m altitude, in nature growing up
|
||
to 600 m in teak forests. Optimum temperature should be above 24°C, with precipitation
|
||
varying from 9 to 10 dm to 30 dm or more per annum.Lac tree is common on well-
|
||
drained boulder deposits, frequently in large numbers along ravines or on the edges of
|
||
terraces in the sub-Himalayan tract and the outer hills. Conunon on sides of ravines on
|
||
sandstone or on boulder beds in Siwalik range. Scattered near banks of streams in mixed
|
||
forests in central India. Prefers slightly acidic soils; thrives best on light well-drained, gravelly
|
||
or loamy soils; occurs on sandy and laterite soils.
|
||
Cultivation — Trees propagated by seed and root suckers, either naturally in the forest
|
||
268 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
or under cultivation. Seeds viable only for a short period, but can be stored for 1 year in
|
||
gunny sacks or 2 years in sealed tins. Seeds are started in seed-beds, and young trees planted
|
||
out when 0.5 to 1 m tall. Once established, no special care is required. No special fertilizers
|
||
or soil pH are needed. Wild trees and those grown for boundaries may also be used for lac-
|
||
trees. When cultivated, trees are planted about 275/ha. Stump-planting seems to give better
|
||
results in moist climates. Stumps, with ca. 4 cm shoot and 23 cm root, are prepared from
|
||
seedlings which have attained 7 to 13 mm diameter. Trees should be protected from grazing
|
||
and weeded regularly for the first few years. Trees will tolerate only light pruning; apical
|
||
pruning is better than surface pruning.
|
||
Harvesting — Seeds are harvested in the autumn. Collectors climb trees and cut off fruit
|
||
bearing branches. Fruits are depulped by keeping them in a heap for 2 to 4 days and rubbing
|
||
the decaying pericarp off with the hands. Seeds are then washed, dried, and stored. Kusum
|
||
bears a good crop of lac every second or third year.^°’^^®
|
||
Yields and economics — Average annual production of stick-lac varies from 1 to 1.5
|
||
kg per tree, to as much as 9 to 18 kg from well-cultivated trees.The quantity of lac
|
||
produced per tree varies with the size of the crown and the vigor of the shoots. Average
|
||
seed yields of about 28 to 37 kg in one season are reported, which translates to 7 to 13 kg
|
||
of easily expressed oil.^° India, Sri Lanka, and Java are the principle producers of the lac,
|
||
and the U.S. is the main consumer. Lac from trees from India and Sri Lanka command the
|
||
highest price.
|
||
Energy — The very heavy wood, specific gravity approximately 0.91 to 1.08, makes
|
||
good fuel and excellent charcoal. Sapwood has a calorific value of 4,950 calories (8,910
|
||
Btu); heartwood, 4,928 calories (8,872 Btu). Kernels (60 to 65% of the fresh fruit; 15.3%
|
||
of dried fruit) contain 59 to 72% oil, although yields are only 32 to 35% oil by boiling
|
||
decorticated seeds, 25 to 27% with ox-driven presses. With 275 trees per hectare, there
|
||
could be 1,925 to 3,575 kg oil per ha. The oil is used for candles and for illumination; the
|
||
oil-cake is also used as fuel.^°
|
||
Biotic factors — Monkeys and birds eat the seeds, thus interfering in their collection for
|
||
use for oil. The fungus M eliola capensis is known to attack trees, and D endrophthoe fa lca ta
|
||
sometimes parasitizes it.^’^^® Browne^^ lists the following as affecting lac tree: Fungi —
|
||
C orticium salm onicolor, R osellinia bunodes. Coleóptera — H olotrichia serrata, M yllocertus
|
||
cardoni, X yleboru s fo rn icatu s, X ylosandrus m origerus. Hemiptera — L accifer lacea. Lep-
|
||
idoptera — A scotis setenaria, C atach rysops strabo. C usíala raptaría, D asychira grotei,
|
||
E ctropis bhurm itra, H elioth is arm ígera, H yposidra successaria, H . talaca, R apala iarbus,
|
||
T halassodes fa lsa ria . In addition. The W ealth o f India^^ reports R osellina bunodes (stem
|
||
blight), P olyporu s w eberianus (yellow-cork-rot), D aedalea fla vid a (white spongy rot), H ex-
|
||
agonia apiaria (white spongy rot), Irpex fla vu s (white fibrous rot). Serinetha augus attacks
|
||
the seed. L accifer lacea, the lac insect, is considered the most important insect attacking
|
||
the tree.^®
|
||
269
|
||
SCLEROCARYA CAFFRA Sond. (ANACARDIACEAE) — Manila Nut, Caffir Marvola Nut
|
||
Uses — Tree is important for shade and shelter as well as food to a variety of animals.
|
||
Fruits (or kernels, or both) edible, yet said to serve as an insecticide. Kernels of stones have
|
||
a delicious nut-like flavor, and are eaten raw, or dried and ground and added to soups or
|
||
stews. Fruits, the size of plums, have a pleasant flavor and are a source of food for parrots
|
||
and mammals. With a turpentine aroma, the fruit is juicy, tart, and thirst-quenching. Fruit
|
||
juice, boiled down, yields jelly or syrup used as sweetening agent. Fruit is also used by
|
||
natives to make a fermented beverage which is intoxicating. Elephants and monkeys ap
|
||
parently become drunk from eating fermenting fruits. Seeds, extracted with difficulty, are
|
||
oily, nutrituous and high in vitamin C. Kernels contain about 60% oil, extracted by boiling
|
||
and used to preserve and soften skin shirts by Zulu women. Oil is used to treat meat which
|
||
is to be kept for up to a year. Oil is also used for cooking and as a base for cosmetic red
|
||
ochre. Pedi use the ground up kernels for making a porridge, the embryo as a condiment,
|
||
and the leaf as a relish. Bark is used to make a bitter brandy tincture, and is the source of
|
||
a red dye. Gum from the bark is mixed with soot and used for ink. Wood, pinkish white,
|
||
often with a greenish tinge, changing to a brown-red on exposure, is fairly soft, fairly
|
||
durable, saws well, and takes nails, and is used for making fruitboxes, canoes, furniture,
|
||
panelling, utensils, troughs, stamping blocks, structures, spoons, bowls, dishes, and drums.
|
||
Leaves are browsed by many animals; elephants eat the bark and roots.
|
||
270 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
Folk medicine — Reported to be astringent, marula is a folk remedy for diarrhea,
|
||
dysentery, malaria, and proctitis. The bark decoction is used for diarrhea, dysentery, and
|
||
malaria, and to clean out wounds. The leaf juice is applied to gonorrhea. Europeans in South
|
||
Africa take the bark decoction both for the cure and prevention of malaria (but experiments
|
||
have not confirmed antimalarial activity). Zulu use the bark decoction to prevent gangrenous
|
||
rectitis. Fruits are believed to serve both as an aphrodisiac and contraceptive for females.
|
||
(African cattle, having partaken of too much fruit, have been observed to become both
|
||
aggressive and infertile.)®^ Europeans and Africans use the bark as a prophylactic and to
|
||
treat malaria, the steam for eye disorders. Because of their abundant fruits, the trees are
|
||
widespread fertility charms in Africa. The bark is thought to control the sex of unborn
|
||
children; bark of the male tree is administered if a son is desired, and of a female tree if a
|
||
daughter is desired.
|
||
Chemistry — Per 100 g, the fruit (ZMB) is reported to contain 361 calories, 6.0 g protein,
|
||
1.2 g fat, 90.4 g total carbohydrate, 6.0 g fiber, 2.4 g ash, 72.3 mg Ca, 229 mg P, 1.2 mg
|
||
Fe, 0.36 mg thiamine, 0.60 mg riboflavin, 2.41 mg niacin, and 819 mg ascorbic acid. The
|
||
seed (ZMB) is reported to contain, per 100 g, 629 calories, 25.6 g protein, 59.8 g fat, 9.6
|
||
g total carbohydrate, 2.8 g fiber, 5.0 g ash, 149 mg Ca, 1299 mg P, 0.4 mg Fe, 0.04 mg
|
||
thiamine, 0.12 mg riboflavin, and 0.73 mg niacin.®^ Per 100 g, the fruit (APB) is reported
|
||
to contain 30 calories, 91.7 g H2O, 0.5 g protein, 0.1 g fat, 7.5 g total carbohydrate, 0.5
|
||
g fiber, 0.2 g ash, 6 mg Ca, 19 mg P, 0.1 mg Fe, 0.03 mg thiamine, 0.05 mg riboflavin,
|
||
0.2 mg niacin, and 68 mg ascorbic acid. The seed (APB) is reported to contain 604 calories,
|
||
3.9 g H2O, 24.6 g protein, 57.5 g fat, 9.2 g total carbohydrate, 2.7 g fiber, 4.8 g ash, 143
|
||
mg Ca, 1248 mg P, 0.4 mg Fe, 0.04 mg thiamine, 0.12 mg riboflavin, and 0.7 mg niacin.
|
||
Bark contains 3.5 to 10% tannin, leaves 20% tannin, a trace of alkaloids, and 10% gum.
|
||
Fruits contain citric and malic acid, sugar, and 54 mg vitamin C per 100 g. Seed oil (53 to
|
||
60%) contains ca. 55 to 70% oleic acid. The pattern of the amino acids (particularly rich
|
||
in arginine, aspartic acid, and glutamic acid) in the mean differ only slightly from that in
|
||
human milk and eggs.®^ The juice contains 2 mg vitamin C per gram {South Africa Digest,
|
||
March 5, 1982).
|
||
Toxicity — One source lists it as a narcotic hallucinogen(?). In 1972, a flurry of newspaper
|
||
articles heralded the propensity of pachyderms to get pickled on the fruit. Elephants, baboons,
|
||
monkeys, warthogs, and humans may overindulge in Kruger Park (South Africa).®^
|
||
Description — Small to large much-branched dioecious, deciduous tree, up to 20 m tall,
|
||
with rounded crown with a spread of 10 m; trunk 30 to 90 cm in diameter; bark pale, nearly
|
||
smooth, peeling in disk-shaped flakes,which leave circular depressions. Leaves alternate,
|
||
crowded toward apex of stem, up to 30 cm long, compound with 3 to 8 pairs of opposite
|
||
leaflets; leaflets long-petiolulate, ovate or elliptic, blue-green; serrate on margin in juvenile
|
||
plants but smooth in older plants, glabrous, 3.7 to 5 cm long 2.5 to 3.3 cm wide, base
|
||
acute, cuspidate. Rowers unisexual, male and female on different trees; male flowers in
|
||
terminal reddish spikes or racemes, with 12 to 15 stamens, inserted around a fleshy, de
|
||
pressed, entire disk; sepals 4, dark-crimson; petals 4, pinkish; female flowers long-peduncled,
|
||
borne singly or 2 or 3 together at ends of young shoots (rarely flowers are fully bisexual);
|
||
usually only female trees bear fruits, but frequently terminal flowers of male inflorescences
|
||
may develop fruits; ovary subglobose, 2- to 3-locular. Fruit a fleshy, obovoid, 2- to 3-celled,
|
||
yellow drupe, each cell containing a seed, and each cell with an “ eye” to permit the embryo
|
||
to grow out of the shell. Seed or stone about 2.5 cm long, 1.5 cm wide, weighing 3 to 4
|
||
g. Rowers August; fruits December to March in South Africa.^^®
|
||
Germplasm — Reported from the Africa Center of Diversity, marula, or cvs thereof, is
|
||
reported to tolerate drought, heat, insects, and sand.®^
|
||
Distribution — Native to South Africa, particularly to Natal and Transvaal, but wide
|
||
spread in hotter drier regions, Bechuanaland and tropical Africa, north to Sudan and Ethiopia,
|
||
established at Miami, Rorida.^^®
|
||
271
|
||
E cology — Ranging from Subtropical Dry through Tropical Dry to Wet Forest Life Zones,
|
||
marula is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 6.7 to 43.0 dm (mean of 3 cases =
|
||
21.6 dm), annual temperature of 20.6 to 27.4°C (mean of 3 cases = 24. TC), and pH of
|
||
6.1.*^ One of the more common trees in the savannas of the Transvaal. It does not tolerate
|
||
frost. Thrives especially in hot dry regions, and is rarely found in higher rainfall areas.
|
||
Occurs mainly in woodlands from the coast up to about 700 m altitude, on sandy soils or
|
||
occasionally on sandy loams. Reported as growing in savanna grasslands where annual
|
||
elevation and rainfall are as follows: Mozambique — 200 to 900 m, 630 to 1000 mm; South
|
||
Africa-Mozambique — 300 to 1000 m, 250 to 500 mm; South Zimbabwe — 450 to 1000
|
||
m, 380 to 640 mm; Angola — 80 to 1000 m; 600 to 710 mm; South Africa — 600 to 1500
|
||
m, 380 to 640 mm. In Malagasy, it occurs in areas with 1,000 to 1,500 mm precipitation.^^®
|
||
C u ltivation — Common in the wild, marulas have grown very slowly under experimental
|
||
conditions, but grow quickly in natural conditions. Seeds germinate readily; the hard stones
|
||
should be sown intact. Trees may be propagated by truncheons, 10 to 12.5 cm thick, which
|
||
root freely if laid in during early spring. Trees grow fairly rapidly and are drought-resistant
|
||
when once established.^^® A project to breed marula was scheduled to begin in 1982 by the
|
||
Department of Horticulture at the University of Pretoria (South A frica D igest, March 12,
|
||
1982).
|
||
H arvestin g — Trees are said to bear fruit more copiously than related species. Fruits are
|
||
collected from the ground or by climbing the trees. Natives regard these as the greatest
|
||
delicacy and store them carefully. A gift of marula kernels is valued as a mark of highest
|
||
friendship among natives.
|
||
Y ield s an d eco n o m ics — Trees are very plentiful in the forests where they grow spon
|
||
taneously, and fruits are collected as needed. One tree yields up to 2 tons of fruit (South
|
||
A frica D ig est, March 5, 1982); 30 g of fruit produces 1 € of marula beer (South A frica
|
||
D igest, March 12, 1982). From a single tree, 91,000 fruits have been reported.Kernels
|
||
consist of nearly 88% hard shell, 12% kernel, the kernel yielding ca. 50% oil. Within the
|
||
fruit, the shell contains the small oily kemeUhat bums with a steady flame.^^® Because of
|
||
its local economic importance, trees are usually preserved by Bantu and others, even on
|
||
cultivated land. In Transvaal also, the trees are protected.
|
||
E n ergy — With two tons of fmit possible per tree, one might possibly obtain more than
|
||
6,000 € of beer, distilling down to possibly 300 € ethanol per tree, or 3,000 liters assuming
|
||
100 trees per hectare. The hard nut endocarp could be converted to charcoal, the kernel
|
||
yielding 50% oil. Sap of the tree could also be converted to ethanol. Prunings and by
|
||
products could be used in pyrolysis.
|
||
B iotic factors — Fungi known to attack marula are C ercospora caffra and G loeosporium
|
||
sclerocaryae. Trees are host of a small beetle (P olydada) of which the highly poisonous
|
||
grubs are used by Bushmen as an ingredient for arrow poisons. Mopane Caterpillars also
|
||
grow on the tree, and are eaten after roasting by Bantu and Bushmen.^^® Water, which mns
|
||
off the tmnk and crown into holes — usually where a branch has broken off — is used by
|
||
mosquitoes for breeding. Larvae of G onim brasia helina sometimes breed on marula. But
|
||
terflies and the green lunar moth breed on the foliage. Wood is very liable to blue discoloration
|
||
through fungi and beetle attacks.
|
||
272 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
SIMMONDSIA CHINENSIS (Link) C. Schneid. (BUXACEAE) — Jojoba
|
||
Uses — Simmondsia is unique among plants in that its seeds contain an oil which is a
|
||
liquid wax. Oil of Simmondsia is obtained by expression or solvent extraction. It is light-
|
||
yellow, unsaturated, of unusual stability, remarkably pure, and need not be refined for use
|
||
as a transformer oil or as a lubricant for high-speed machinery or machines operating at
|
||
high temperatures. The oil does not become rancid and is not damaged by repeated heating
|
||
to temperatures over 295°C or by heating to 370°C for 4 days; the color is dispelled by
|
||
heating for a short time at 285°C, does not change in viscosity appreciably at high temper
|
||
atures, and requires little refining to obtain maximum purity. Since Simmondsia oil resembles
|
||
sperm whale oil both in composition and properties, it should serve as a replacement for
|
||
the applications of that oil. The reports that a new oil from the fish known as orange
|
||
roughy is “ attempting to make inroads on the jojoba and sperm whale markets” . Jojoba oil
|
||
273
|
||
can be easily hydrogenated into a hard white wax, with a melting point of about 73 to 74°C,
|
||
and is second in hardness only to camauba wax. The oil is a potential source of both saturated
|
||
and unsaturated long-chain fatty acids and alcohols. It is also suitable for sulfurization to
|
||
produce lubricating oil and a rubber-like material (factice) suitable for use in printing ink
|
||
and linoleum. The residual meal from expression or extraction contains 30 to 35% protein
|
||
and is acceptable as a livestock food. Seeds were said to be palatable and were eaten raw
|
||
or parched by Indians. Recent studies suggest they are toxic. They may also be boiled to
|
||
make a well-flavored drink similar to coffee, hence the name coffeeberry. It is an important
|
||
browse plant in California and Arizona, the foliage and young twigs being relished by cattle,
|
||
goafs, and deer, hence such names as goatnut.^^
|
||
Folk medicine — Indians of Baja California highly prized the fruit for food and the oil
|
||
as a medicine for cancer and kidney disorders. Indians in Mexico use the oil as a hair
|
||
restorer. According to H a rtw e ll,th e oil was used in folk remedies for cancer. Reported
|
||
to be emetic, jojoba is a folk remedy for cancer, colds, dysuria, eyes, head, obesity,
|
||
parturition, poison ivy, sores, sore throat, warts, and wounds. Seri Indians applied jojoba
|
||
to head sores and aching eyes. They drank jojoba-ade for colds and to facilitate parturition.®^’*^^
|
||
Chemistry — I was amazed to see, in searching through my massive files on jojoba,
|
||
that I had no conventional proximate analysis. It was not even included in two of my most
|
||
treasured resources, Hager’s Handbook and The Wealth of India. Pe r haps this is due
|
||
to the relative novelty of interest and the unique situation that the seed contains liquid wax
|
||
rather than oil, sort of unusual for the conventional analyses.Verbiscar and Banigan^^^
|
||
approximated a proximate analysis, some of which follows: per 100 g, the seed is reported
|
||
to contain 4.3 to 4.6 g H2O, 14.9 to 15.1 g protein, 50.2 to 53.8 g fat, 24.6 to 29.1 g total
|
||
carbohydrate, 3.5 to 4.2 g fiber, and 1.4 to 1.6 g ash. The amino acid composition of
|
||
deoiled jojoba seed meal is 1.05 to 1.11% lysine, 0.49% histidine, 1.6 to 1.8% arginine,
|
||
2.2 to 3.1% aspartic acid, 1.1 to 1.2% threonine, 1.0 to 1.1% serine, 2.4 to 2.8% glutamic
|
||
acid, 1.0 to 1.1% proline, 1.4 to 1.5% glycine, 0.8 to 1.0% alanine, 1.1 to 1.2% valine,
|
||
0.2% methionine, 0.8 to 0.9% isoleucine, 1.5 to 1.6% leucine, 1.0% tyrosine, 0.9 to 1.1%
|
||
phenyalanine, 0.5 to 0.8% cystine and cysteine, and 0.5 to 0.6% tryptophane. Detailed
|
||
analyses of the wax esters, free alcohols, and free acids, are reported in NAS.^^^ Per 100
|
||
g jojoba meal, there is 1.4 g lysine, 0.6 g histidine, 1.9 g arginine, 2.6 aspartic acid, 1.3
|
||
threonine, 1.3 serine, 3.2 glutamic acid, 1.5 proline, 2.4 glycine, 1.1 alanine, 0.6 cystine,
|
||
1.5 valine, 0.1 methionine, 0.9 isoleucine, 1.8 leucine, 1.1 tyrosine, and 1.2 g phenylalanine.
|
||
The two major flavonoid constituents of the leaves are isorhamnetin 3-rutinoside (narcissin)
|
||
and isorhamnetin 3,7-dirhamnoside.^^
|
||
Toxicity — Simmondsin, a demonstrated appetite-depressant toxicant is contained in
|
||
seeds, 2.25 to 2.34%; seed hulls, 0.19%; core wood, 0.45; leaves, 0.19 to 0.23%; twigs,
|
||
0.63 to 0.75%; and inflorescence, 0.22%. Three related cyanomethylenecyclohexyl glu-
|
||
cosides have also been isolated from the seed meal. The acute oral LD50 for crude jojoba
|
||
oil to male albino rats is higher than 21.5 m€/kg body weight. Strains of Lactobacillus
|
||
acidophilus can ameliorate this toxicity.
|
||
Description — Leafy, xerophytic, long-lived (100 to 200 years), evergreen dioecious
|
||
shrub, ca.0.5 to 1 m tall in the wild, but occasionally to 6 m tall; leaves thick, leathery,
|
||
bluish-green, oblong, opposite, 2.5 to 3.5 cm long, entire; flowers apetalous, the female
|
||
ones usually solitary in the axils, the male ones clustered with 10 to 12 stamens per flower;
|
||
female flowers with 5 greenish sepals, soft and hairy; the flowers on different plants, male
|
||
and female plants about equal in nature; fruits ovoid, usually dehiscent, with 1 to 3 peanut
|
||
sized, brown seeds each, the endosperm scanty or absent; seeds about 750 to 5,150/kg,
|
||
about 50% oil.^^®
|
||
Germplasm — Reported from the Middle American Center of Diversity, jojoba, or cvs
|
||
thereof, is reported to tolerate alkali, drought, heat, high pH, and slope.Yermanos^"^®
|
||
274 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
describes a monoecious strain which may lead to self-pollinating cvs. (n = 52, 56, ca.lOO.)
|
||
Distribution — Native to areas of northern Mexico, Lower California, on the Islands off
|
||
the coast of California, New Mexico, and Arizona. It inhabits the mountains bordering the
|
||
Saltón Sea basin in the Colorado Desert in California, and the southern portion of San Diego
|
||
County. In Arizona, it is found in the mountains around Tucson, near Phoenix, and north
|
||
of Yuma. In nature, it grows between 600 and 1500 m elevation in the desert, down to sea
|
||
level near the coast, between latitudes 25° and 31° N. There is a major effort underway in
|
||
the U.S., Mexico, and Israel to domesticate jojoba; e.g., there are reports that is has been
|
||
planted in Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Costa Rica, Egypt, Haiti, Israel, Paraguay, Rhodesia,
|
||
the Sahel, and South Africa. The Israeli examples are bearing fruit. We are anxious to hear
|
||
more success stories. There seems to be no major difficulty in growing the plant in frost-
|
||
free, arid, subtropical, and tropical zones, but not many success stories have materialized.
|
||
Ecology — Ranging from Warm Temperate Desert (with little or no frost) to Thom
|
||
through Tropical Desert Forest Life Zones, jojoba is reported to tolerate annual precipitation
|
||
of 2 to 11 dm, annual temperature of 16 to 26°C, and pH of 7.3 to 8.2.®^ Jojoba is usually
|
||
restricted to well-drained, coarse, well-aerated desert soils that are neutral to alkaline, with
|
||
an abundance of phosphoms. It grows best where the annual rainfall exceeds 30 cm, but
|
||
does exist where less then 12.5 cm occurs. Where rainfall is ca.75 mm, the jojoba grows
|
||
to ca.l m tall; where rainfall is 250 to 400 mm, it may attain 5 m. It tolerates full sun and
|
||
temperatures ranging from 0 to 47°C. Mature shmbs tolerate temperatures as low as - 10°C,
|
||
but seedlings are sensitive to light frosts just below freezing.
|
||
Cultivation — Jojoba seeds retain nearly 99% germinability after 6 months, and 38%
|
||
after 11 years stored in an open shed. Germination is good in alkaline sands at temperatures
|
||
of 27 to 38°C. Seedlings are frost sensitive. Field seeding can be done with a modified
|
||
cotton planter. Seedlings need two or three irrigations during the first summer and must be
|
||
protected from animals. Weeding is recommended after each irrigation. Adventitious roots
|
||
may form on 50 to 80% of the cuttings treated with growth-promoting substances. Plants
|
||
could start producing seeds in 5 years, but full production would not be attained for 8 to
|
||
10 years. Using a 2 x 4 m spacing in planting would permit the planting of about 500
|
||
female and 50 male pollinating plants per hectare. Apomictic plants are known, lessening
|
||
the need for male nonfruiting plants in the orchard. Suggested methods for planting include:
|
||
Close spacing, ca. 15 cm apart, resulting in hedge-rows, with the seeds planted in flat borders
|
||
or in a slightly depressed ditch so as to keep them moist until they germinate (ca.lO to 14
|
||
days). Male plants should be thinned out to about a 5-1 ratio, finally allowing about 2,500
|
||
plants per hectare, with possible annual yields of 2.5 MT/ha seed. Propagation by cuttings
|
||
from selected shrubs could increase seed and/or oil yields. Generally, flowering nodes and
|
||
leaf nodes alternate, but some plants flower at nearly all nodes; some plants produce more
|
||
than one flower per node. Transplanted seedlings survive readily, if the roots are pruned.
|
||
Hence, cuttings could be made in a nursery for later transplanting in the field. The more
|
||
efficient spacing for this method of planting is in rows 4 m apart, and the bushes in the
|
||
rows 2 m apart. Male bushes should be interspersed throughout the grove (about 1,500
|
||
female and 250 male plants per hectare), possibly yielding ca. 2.75 MT/ha seed. When
|
||
softwood cuttings were treated with IBA, 4 mg/g of talc, they rooted 100% in 38 days.^^*
|
||
Harvesting — In the wild, the only method for harvesting has been hand-collecting from
|
||
under the plants, since mature seeds fall from the bush. Under cultivation, hedge-row, or
|
||
orchard-like plantations, without undergrowth, seeds could be raked from under the bushes
|
||
and then picked up by suction. Pruning the lower branches might be advantageous if this
|
||
method be used. A device could be designed to pick the seeds from the bush prior to the
|
||
time of falling. Cost of harvesting would depend on the method.
|
||
Yields and economics — Buchanan and Duke^^^ accept a figure near 2,250 kg/ha for
|
||
yields of jojoba. Individual plants may yield 5 kg (dry weight) seeds and more, of which
|
||
275
|
||
50% (43 to 56%) by weight is a colorless, odorless liquid wax commonly called “jojoba
|
||
oil” 230 Yermanos^"*^ suggested that a 5-year-old orchard should yield about 825 kg of nuts
|
||
per hectare, increasing to 4,125 kg/ha in the 12th year, suggesting a renewable “ oil” yield
|
||
of ca.2 MT/year. Such yields may be optimistic, even for well-managed plantations. Esti
|
||
mates of the amount of wild nuts available each year range from 100 million to 1 billion
|
||
pounds, the plants growing over 100 million acres in California, Mexico, and Arizona.
|
||
Usually plants in cultivation yield oil in 6 to 7 years; the Israelis report their best specimens
|
||
yield 2 or more kg of seed in the 4th year; wild plants yield about 1 kg of nuts per year,
|
||
and cultivars should yield twice that amount or more. The seeds contain up to 50% “ oil” .
|
||
In 1958, long before the whale oil became endangered, the value of Simmondsia “ oil” as
|
||
a hard wax was estimated at $.55/kg. Because of the present demand for the wax and oil,
|
||
jojoba is being considered as a noncompetitive crop, that could replace wheat and cotton in
|
||
Texas and southern California, with as much as the yield from 70,000 hectares being absorbed
|
||
by industry. The Chemical Marketing Reporter^^' stated that jojoba prices doubled in 6
|
||
months to $200/gal. The cost of establishing a plantation can vary from $3,000/ha on land
|
||
with irrigation available to $5,600/ha on rough desert terrain .O n ce established, mainte
|
||
nance costs are low — only ca. $200/year. One hectare can yield 1,125 to 2,250 kg oil per
|
||
year. (Recent prices have approached $50/kg, suggesting to the uninitiated yields of
|
||
$100,000/ha, right up there with the hyperoptimistic ginseng yields. In either case, a wait
|
||
of at least 5 years for the first return might seem interminable. Prices have gone down
|
||
considerably since this was sarcastically written.)
|
||
Energy — With 641 plants per hectare, the aerial phytomass (over 6% of total phytomass)
|
||
was 1,573 kg/ha and annual productivity only 327 kg/ha.Daugherty et al.^^ were optimistic,
|
||
but not so optimistic as Yérmanos about jojoba oil yields. They projected ca.500 kg/ha oil
|
||
for jojoba, ca.nearly 100 for cottonseed, ca.200 for flaxseed, ca.250 for soybean, and nearly
|
||
300 for safflower (based on 10-year averages for the conventional oilseeds, speculation for
|
||
jojoba).
|
||
Biotic factors — One fungus {Sturnella sim m ondsiae Bonar) occurs on the leaves, calyxes,
|
||
and peduncles, but little damages the plant in this country. P hytophthora p a ra sitica and
|
||
Pythium aphaniderm atum may cause root rot in jojoba plantations. Cuttings are sensitive to
|
||
A lternaría tenuis, seedlings to Sclerotium bataticola and Fusarium oxysporum , A scale
|
||
insect that inhabits the leaves also is not detrimental. There is a harmful pest, probably a
|
||
microlepidopoterous insect, that destroys a large part of the wild crop by consuming the
|
||
very young ovules. One spraying at the proper time might eliminate this damage. The scale
|
||
Situlaspis yu ccae and the unique mealybug P uto sim m ondsia have been reported.
|
||
276 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
TELFAIRIA OCCIDENTALIS Hook.f. (CUCURBITACEAE) — Fluted Pumpkin, Oyster
|
||
Nut
|
||
Uses — Young shoots and leaves are used as a pot-herb. Leaves are much sought after
|
||
by sheep and goats. Seeds are eaten and are said to have a pleasant almond-like flavor, but
|
||
the bitter seed-coat must be discarded. Seeds are boiled and eaten or put in soups, or used
|
||
as the source of a nondrying oil for native cookery and soap-making. Seeds are also used
|
||
for polishing native earthenware pots. Dry shell of the fruit is sometimes used for utensils.
|
||
Dried seeds are powdered and used to thicken soups. Dried fiber from macerated stems is
|
||
used like loofa for paper.^^’^^^^^®
|
||
Folk medicine — No data available.
|
||
Chemistry — Per 100 g, the seed (ZMB) is reported to contain 579 calories, 21.9 g
|
||
protein, 48.0 g fat, 25.1 g total carbohydrate, 2.3 g fiber, 5.6 g ash, 89.6 mg Ca, and 610
|
||
mg P. Per 100 g, the leaf (ZMB) is reported to contain 346 calories, 21.2 to 21.3 g protein,
|
||
12.9 to 13.2 g fat, 51.5 to 52.0 g total carbohydrates, 12.5 to 12.8 g fiber, and 13.9 to
|
||
14.0 g ash.^^ BurkilP^ reports that the oil contains 37% oleic acid, 21% palmitic acid, 21%
|
||
stearic acid, 15% linoleic acid. Seeds contain a trace of alkaloid, while none has been
|
||
detected in the roots.On a wet weight basis, the pulped leaves contain 11 mg beta-carotene,
|
||
juice 9, fiber 1, supernatant 1, and wet LPC 8 mg beta-carotene per 100 g. Under stored
|
||
conditions, the LPC lost 82% beta-carotene and 58% xanthophyll over 12 months.Ca.70%
|
||
of the total N and 63% of the protein N was extracted; the potential protein extractability
|
||
is ca.90%. The oil, by weight, contains 16% palmitic-, 3% stearic-, 23% oleic-, 23% linoleic-
|
||
and 19% alpha-eleostearic-acids. Seeds of T. occidentalis contain fairly large amounts of
|
||
alpha-eleostearic and no linolenic glycerides, while the seed fat of T. pedata derives from
|
||
the usual mixture of saturated, oleic, linoleic, and linoleic acids.
|
||
Description — Perennial, dioecious liana, up to 33 m long; stems herbaceous, ribbed,
|
||
glabrous or pubescent, becoming thickened when old. Leaves petiolate, 3- to 5-foliolate;
|
||
median leaflet elliptic, acuminate, acute, tapered into the petiolule, entire or shallowly
|
||
sinuate-toothed, glabrous or sparsely hairy or punctate, 3-veined from near base with 2 well-
|
||
developed ascending lateral veins, 6 to 17 cm long, 3 to 10 cm broad; lateral leaflets similar,
|
||
with petiolules 0.2 to 2 cm long, petiole 1.9 to 8 cm long, pubescent; probracts 5 to 8 mm
|
||
long. Male flowers in racemes 10 to 30 cm long, the bracts 2.5 to 8 mm long, 1.5 to 3 mm
|
||
broad, pedicels 8 to 35 mm long, receptacle-tube campanulate, 2.5 to 3.5 mm long, densely
|
||
glandular-hairy inside above; lobes triangular, glandular-dentate, 2 to 4 mm long; petals
|
||
about 2.5 cm long, 1.2 cm broad, white with dark-purple marks at base inside, or creamy
|
||
white with red-purple spot (eye); stamens 3, anthers coherent in center of flower; female
|
||
flowers stalked. Fruit pale glaucous green or whitish with waxy bloom when ripe, flesh
|
||
yellowish, ellipsoid, tapering at both ends, rather sharply 10-ribbed, up to 60 (to 90) cm
|
||
long. Seeds numerous, very broadly and asymmetrically ovate, 3.2 to 3.6 cm long, 3.3 to
|
||
3.7 cm broad, and 1.0 to 1.2 cm thick; testa smooth with endocarpic fibrous sheath poorly
|
||
developed or a b s e n t.F lo w e rs and fruits year-round.
|
||
Germplasm — Reported from the African Center of Diversity, the fluted pumpkin, or
|
||
CVS thereof, is reported to tolerate drought, low pH, poor soil, and shade.Very similar to
|
||
the following species, which is the commercial source of true oyster nut oil.^^ The true
|
||
oyster nut has purplish-pink flowers, whereas the fluted pumpkin has white flowers with a
|
||
purplish eye. (2n = 24.)
|
||
Distribution — Native to tropical Africa from Sierra Leone to Angola, the Congo Area;
|
||
Fernando Po, U ganda.Introduced to tropical America.
|
||
Ecology — Ranging from Warm Temperate Moist through Tropical Dry to Wet Forest
|
||
Life Zones, the fluted pumpkin is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 13.6 to 22.8
|
||
dm (mean of 2 cases = 18.2), annual temperature of 24.4 to 26.2°C (mean of 2 cases =
|
||
277
|
||
25.3°C), and pH of 5.0 to 5.0 (mean of 2 cases = 5.0).®^ Thrives best in closed-forest
|
||
country,ca. 1,200 m above sea level.Apparently best adapted to a hot, humid climate
|
||
(e.g., TMF), common in littoral hedges, and lowland rain-forests up to about 1,200 m.^^®
|
||
Its occurrence at the edges of forests may be the consequence of previous cultivation. It
|
||
thrives in plantings in Talamanca, Costa Rica.
|
||
Cultivation — Cultivated in some places, especially S. Nigeria and by some tribes in
|
||
Ghana. Grown on stakes or trained up trees.Propagated by seeds either planted near trees
|
||
upon which to climb, or more often allowed to sprawl over the ground, as is done in Nigeria.
|
||
Once established, plants are perennial for several years. Grows well in any good garden
|
||
soil where there is plenty of heat and moisture.
|
||
Harvesting — Leaves and shoots are picked continuously as the plant grows.Fruits
|
||
are collected whenever ripe and needed. No special season, as plants flower and fruit
|
||
yearround, and the fruits are gradually ripened throughout the year.^^®
|
||
Yields and economics — Often cultivated for the seeds by natives in West Tropical
|
||
Africa, East Tropical Africa, and Southeast Asia; and probably elsewhere in the hot, humid
|
||
tropics. Mainly used for the seeds as a vegetable and for oil, and the stem for the fibers for
|
||
making paper.
|
||
Energy — This plant climbed up trees in Talamanca like kudzu does in tropical America,
|
||
and fruited copiously. Its relatively high seed-oil content suggests that this is as promising
|
||
an energy species as China’s Hodgsonia. No doubt the foliage could provide LPC (leaf
|
||
protein concentrate) and the seeds oil, with the residues being used as by-products for energy
|
||
production.
|
||
Biotic factors — No serious pests or diseases have been reported.
|
||
278 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
TELFAIRIA PEDATA (Sm. ex Sims) Hook.f. (CUCURBITACEAE) — Oyster nut, Zanzibar
|
||
Oilvine, Telfairia nuts, Jikungo
|
||
Uses — Oyster nut is cultivated for its edible seeds^^"^ and oil yield (about 62%). The
|
||
fruits are used in soups, and the nuts are used in confectionery and chocolates, either alone
|
||
or as a partial substitute for Brazil nuts or almonds, and are quite palatable fresh or roasted,
|
||
as well as pickled. The seeds are the source of Castanha Oil, used in manufacture of soaps,
|
||
cosmetics, salad dressings, paints, and candles. One quote from an unpublished W. E. Bailey
|
||
typescript, “ Possibly the oil can be converted into explosives, just as the Germans have
|
||
done with Romanian soy beans. The oil is almost indistinguishable from olive oil. The nuts
|
||
may be pounded, cooked in water, and eaten as a cereal (porridge). The kernel has a high
|
||
vitamin content, and residue from the kernel after the oil has been extracted can be used
|
||
for livestock feed.^^® However, Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk^^^ describe the seed-cake as
|
||
“ useless for stock feeding on account of its bitterness” .
|
||
Folk medicine — Medicinally, oyster nuts have laxative properties, and women in Usa-
|
||
mabar eat the nut immediately after childbirth to cause early contraction of the pelvis,
|
||
increase the flow of milk, and insure an early return of their strength so they can return to
|
||
normal duties in a day or two.^^* East Africans use the seed oil for stomach ailments and
|
||
rheumatism, the leaf as a bitter tonic. Chagga use the seed as a puerperal tonic and lactagogue.
|
||
The plant reportedly has taenifuge properties, especially the seed.
|
||
Chemistry — Per 100 g, the seed (ZMB) is reported to contain 31.1 g protein, 66.2 g
|
||
fat, 2.7 g ash, 10.5 mg Ca, 596 mg P, and 4.3 mg Fe.*^ Per 100 g, the kernel (51 to 60%
|
||
of seed) is reported to contain 4.4 g H2O, 29.7 g protein, 63.3 g fat, 2.6 g ash, 10 mg Ca,
|
||
279
|
||
570 mg P, and 4.1 mg Fe.^® An unpublished London Fruit Exchange report on file in the
|
||
Germplasm Introduction and Evaluation Laboratory, gives 6.56% moisture, 19.63% protein,
|
||
36.02% fat, 28.45% N-free extract, 7.3% fiber, and 2.04% ash. The oil is yellowish with
|
||
a brownish fluorescence, practically odorless, with a low acid value, and possesses a pleasant,
|
||
slightly sweet taste. Somewhat viscous, it is liquid at room temperature, deposits stearine
|
||
on standing, saponifies readily, and contains stearic, palmitic, and telfairic acids, as well
|
||
as about 27% protein (as compared to 40% in soy beans). The shell, especially the bast,
|
||
contains abundant tannin and a bitter crystalline substance. Seed husks contain three antitumor
|
||
compounds, Cucurbitacin B, D, and E, as well as tannin.
|
||
Toxicity — Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk attribute headaches to eating the fruits.
|
||
Description — Perennial dioecious, herbaceous vine, to 30 m long; the stem herbaceous,
|
||
ribbed, glabrous. Leaves alternate, digitate, 5- to 7-foliolate, the leaflets lanceolate, elliptic
|
||
or narrowly ovate or obovate, penninerved, obscurely sinuate-toothed, to 13 x 6 cm. Male
|
||
flowers pinkish purple, in racemes on long stems, opening in sequence, female flower single
|
||
on shorter stem. Fruit a green gourd-like ellipsoid pepo, 32 to 45 cm long, 16 to 25 cm in
|
||
diameter, bluntly 10-ribbed, weighing up to 30 kg, filled with a dense fleshy pulp in which
|
||
seeds are embedded (difficult to separate seed from pulp). Seeds 60 to 200, to 35 mm in
|
||
diameter, kidney-bean shaped, rich in oil, tasting like almond; kernel protected by two shells,
|
||
the outer tough, fibrous, the inner hard and brittle; outer shell removed by peeling or burning,
|
||
the inner one splits with a blow, sometimes a machine known as a belt sander is used to
|
||
open the nuts.^^^-^^'^
|
||
Germplasm — Reported from the African Center of Diversity, oyster nut, or cvs thereof,
|
||
is reported to tolerate drought, high pH, laterite, poor soil, and shade.
|
||
Distribution — Native to East Tropical Africa, especially in Mauritius, Zanzibar, Tan
|
||
zania, Pemba, and Mozambique. Cultivated throughout the area; especially in Kenya, Masai
|
||
District, Ngong, and formerly in the Mascarene Islands.
|
||
Ecology — Ranging from Subtropical Dry to Moist through Tropical Dry Forest and
|
||
wetter Life Zones, oyster nut is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 5.2 to 15.3 dm
|
||
(mean of 4 cases = 11.1), annual temperature of 8.4 to 24.2°C (mean of 4 cases = 17.4°C),
|
||
and pH of 5.5 to 7.0 (mean of 3 cases = 6.3).®^ Oyster nut grows at the edges of forests,
|
||
enveloping the trees with its branches, while its trunk frequently attains a diameter of 45
|
||
cm. In Africa, it ranges from 0 to 11(X) m altitude in lowland rain forest and riverine forest.
|
||
It grows well in a sheltered position with an eastern exposure, but without strong winds or
|
||
cold temperatures. It requires medium loams with good drainage, is deep-rooted and drought
|
||
resistant. It grows well up to 2000 m elevation in Kenya and Tanzania.^^^
|
||
Cultivation — Oyster nut is propagated by seeds, which should be planted within 3
|
||
months, as the oil dries out of the kernel, causing deterioration of the germ. Seeds, after
|
||
being soaked in water for 5 days, are planted in a nursery. They germinate in about 21 days.
|
||
When the seedlings are about 5 cm tall (2 to 3 months old), they are transplanted to the
|
||
base of trees which they will climb over and often kill — a fast grower, exceeding 20 m
|
||
in 15 months, if not pruned. The nursery offers protection to the seeds and small plants
|
||
which are eaten by insects and wild animals; also, the plants are easier to water in dry
|
||
seasons. Female plants are readily rooted from cuttings. If seed is sown directly in the field,
|
||
880 seeds per hectare, at 2 m apart, in double rows, spaced 4 m apart, is recommended.
|
||
Seed should be planted at half their eventual spacing, since there is no way of distinguishing
|
||
between the male and female plants until flowering takes place; 10 to 15 male vines needed
|
||
per hectare. Sometimes trellises are used, these 2 m high, erected 4 to 5 m apart, and
|
||
connected for the double rows of plants which are trained in opposite directions. This method
|
||
is expensive, mainly due to the cost of the trellises, and is suitable only to mountainous
|
||
regions where the posts would not be attacked by white ants. Green manures, compost, or
|
||
barnyard manure should be used freely from the time of planting. Also bone and fish manures
|
||
280 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
are used, these promoting good growth and fruiting. Lime is used to help control nematodes.
|
||
Vines should be kept weed free for the first year or so after planting on trellises. After that,
|
||
the plants will take care of themselves.^^^
|
||
Harvesting — The crop begins to bear in 2 years, and continues for 20 to 25 years.
|
||
However, the plants will die out the third year in a poor soil. About 4 months are required
|
||
from flower to mature fruit. Plants produce 1 to 2 crops yearly, and may bear almost mature
|
||
fruits while they are flowering. The fruits are picked by hand as they are needed.Nuts
|
||
are soaked in water for about 8 hr in 3 changes of water to remove bitterness.
|
||
Yields and economics — Assuming 160 vines per ha, a conservative 10 fruits per vine,
|
||
each fruit with 140 nuts, each weighing ca.l2 g, the hectare could yield 2685 kg per seed.
|
||
Average yields of the nuts are 1000 to 2000 kg/ha. The oil content of the seed is about 62%
|
||
of its weight, or approximately 35% of the entire weight of the whole nut. This would
|
||
suggest an oil yield up to 700 kg/ha. Dr. T. W. Whitaker (personal communication, June
|
||
1982) suggests that this should be a promising species, but not so exciting as the Asian
|
||
H odgsonia of the cucurbit family. USDA germplasm teams to China should negotiate for
|
||
some of this subtropical species.
|
||
Energy — From the descriptions, the oyster nut would appear to have aerial biomass
|
||
attributes similar to or higher than our American weed, kudzu, often over 10 MT DM/ha.
|
||
One vine reached 12 m tall and 5 cm in diameter in 15 months.
|
||
Biotic factors — The major fungi attacking oyster nut are A rm illaria m ellea, C olleto
|
||
trichum sp., D id y m ella ly copers i d , and O idiopsis taurica. Virgin forests should be thor
|
||
oughly burned before planting to prevent disease. The main nematode, H eterodera m arioni,
|
||
is controlled by the natives using a lime dressing, as the seeding stage is most often attacked.
|
||
In Kenya, the major pests are ground squirrels and porcupines, which dig up recently planted
|
||
seed, and bucks and grasshoppers, which eat the sprouting seed. Mealy bugs, taken from
|
||
coffee trees and put on oyster nut vines, died.^^^
|
||
281
|
||
TERMINALIA CATAPPA L. (COMBRETACEAE) — Indian Almond, Myrobalan, Badam,
|
||
Almendro, Bengal almond, Kotamba, Tropical Almond
|
||
Uses — Indian almond is widely planted in the tropics and subtropics for ornamental,
|
||
shade, timber purposes, and for the edible nuts. It is cultivated mainly for the edible kernels,
|
||
used as substitute for almonds (e.g., in Chinese “ chicken and almonds” in Trinidad). Kernels
|
||
contain 50 to 55% colorless oil of excellent flavor, like almond oil in flavor, odor, and
|
||
specific gravity, highly esteemed in the Orient. Seeds may be eaten raw. Leaves are the
|
||
food of Tasar Silkworms, and are used as wrapping paper for small shop articles. Roots,
|
||
bark, and fruits are used in tanning. Fruits are a source of a black dye used in some parts
|
||
of eastern India to color teeth black. Wood chips in water give a yellow dye. Trees contain
|
||
a gum, which is the source of a black dye, a source of ink, and a cosmetic. Oil is used as
|
||
a substitute for groundnut- (Arachis), cottonseed- (Gossypium), and silk-cottonseed- (Bom-
|
||
bax) oils. Flowers yield a nectar.
|
||
Folk medicine — Reported to be anodyne, astringent, cardiotonic, collyrium, diuretic,
|
||
emetic, lactagogue, pectoral, purgative, sedative, stimulant, sudorific, tonic, and vermifuge,
|
||
Indian almond is a folk remedy for arthritis, bugbites, colic, condylomata, cough, diarrhea,
|
||
dysentery, ear ailments, eruptions, fever, gastritis, glossitis, headache, hemoptysis, insom
|
||
nia, leprosy, lumbago, neuroses, pyorrhea, rheumatism, scabies, skin ailments, sore throat.
|
||
282 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
stomach-ache, stomatitis, swellings, thrush, ulcers, wounds, and yaws.^*’^"^^ Ayurvedics
|
||
consider the fruits antibilious, antibronchitic, aphrodisiac, and astringent. In southern India,
|
||
the juice of the young leaves is put in an ointment for leprosy, scabies, and other skin
|
||
diseases; also used for colic and headache. Indochinese use the leaves with Dacrydium chips
|
||
and nutgrass rhizomes for dysentery; the fruit, with beeswax, for foul ulcers and hemato-
|
||
chezia. Indonesians apply the leaves to swollen rheumatic joints, using the kernel for a
|
||
laxative and lactagogue. Philippines use the leaf juice, cooked with the kernel oil, for leprosy;
|
||
and rubbed onto the breast for pain and numbness; or applied to rheumatic joints. Red leaves
|
||
are believed vermifuge. In the Solomon Islands, leaves, bark, and fruit are used for yaws.^"^^
|
||
Nigerians apply the leaves, macerated in palm oil, for tonsilitis. Cubans take the leaf or
|
||
fruit decoction for hemoptysis, adding crushed leaves to the bath for skin rash. Haitians take
|
||
the bark decoction for bilious fevers. Costa Ricans used the bark decoction for crushed
|
||
nipples and uterorrhagia. Brazilians take the bark decoction for asthma, diarrhea, dysentery,
|
||
and fever. Colombians take the seed emulsion as pectoral.The root bark is given for
|
||
diarrhea and dysentery in French Guiana, the stem bark for bilious fevers. Mexicans make
|
||
a powder from the stems for condylomata.*^^
|
||
Chemistry — Per 100 g, the seeds are reported to contain 574 to 607 calories, 2.7 to
|
||
6.0 g H2O, 19.1 to 25.4 g protein, 52 to 56 g fat, 14.9 to 17.2 g total carbohydrate, 1.8
|
||
to 14.6 g fiber, 2.4 to 4.0 g ash, 32 to 497 mg Ca, 789 to 957 mg P, 2.4 to 9.2 mg Fe,
|
||
70 mg Na, 784 mg K, 0.32 to 0.71 mg thiamine, 0.08 to 0.28 mg riboflavin, 0.6 to 0.7
|
||
mg niacin, and 0 mg ascorbic acid. According to Leung, Butrum, and C h a n g , 94% of
|
||
the as-purchased nut is refuse, the husk only containing 35 calories, 0.4% moisture, 1.2 g
|
||
protein, 3.2 g fat, 1.0 g total carbohydrate, 0.1 g fiber, 0.2 g ash, 2 mg Ca, 47 mg P, 0.6
|
||
mg Fe, 4 mg Na, 47 mg K, 0.02 mg thiamine, traces of riboflavin, and niacin, and no
|
||
ascorbic acid. Amino acid values are given as 14.7 arginine, — cystine, 1.7 histidine, 3.4
|
||
isoleucine, 7.4 leucine, 2.3 lysine, 7.2 aspartic acid, 24.3 glutamic acid, 4.0 alanine, 6.3
|
||
glycine, 4.2 proline, 4.1 serine, 0.9 methionine, 4.2 phenylalanine, 2.9 threonine, —
|
||
tryptophane, 3.2 tyrosine, and 4.8 valine.Unfortunately, the refuse figures do not add
|
||
up to 100. Air-dried kernels contain 3.51% moisture, 52.02% fat, 25.4% protein, 14.6%
|
||
fiber, 5.98% sugars (as glucose). The seed oil contains 1.62% myristic-, 55.49% palmitic,
|
||
6.34% stearic-, 23.26% oleic-, and 7.55% linoleic-acids. The oil-cake (7.88% N) contains
|
||
8% albumin, 15% globulin, negligible prolamine, and 7.5% gluten. The shell contains
|
||
ca. 25% pentosans, and hence, is a good source for making furfural. The leaves and fruits
|
||
contain corilagin, gallic acid, ellagic acid, and brevifolin carboxylic acid, whereas the bark
|
||
and wood contain ellagic acid, gallic acid, ( + )catechin, (-)epicatechin, and ( + )leuco-
|
||
cyanidin.^^
|
||
Description — Handsome, spreading, pagodiform, deciduous tree, medium- to large
|
||
sized, 13 to 27 m tall, 1 to 1.5 m diameter, with horizontal whorls of branches about 1 to
|
||
2 m apart; bark smooth, brownish-gray; leaves opposite, simple, leathery, green, turning
|
||
red before falling, shining, shedding leaves twice a year (February and September), 12 to
|
||
30 cm long, 7.5 to 15 cm wide, obovate, tip rounded or somewhat acute, base narrowed,
|
||
slightly auriculate, petioles about 2.5 cm long; flowers small, greenish-white, arranged
|
||
crowded in short spikes 15 to 20 cm long, arising in axils of leaves, malodorous; stamens
|
||
10 to 12, in staminal flowers towards the apex; fruits yellow-green or reddish, hard, an
|
||
angular drupe, size of a plum, slightly compressed on 2 sides, broadly oval in outline,
|
||
elliptical and 2-winged in transverse section, 3.5 to 7 cm long, with thin fleshy pericarp,
|
||
edible, but with a hard corky interior; seeds slender, pointed, oblong elliptical, 3 to 4 cm
|
||
long, 3 to 5 mm thick. Germination phanerocotylar, the cotyledons convolute. Flowers June
|
||
to August, fruits June to November, bearing two crops of fruit annually before dropping
|
||
leaves.
|
||
Germplasm — Reported from the Indochina-Indonesia Center of Diversity, Indian al
|
||
283
|
||
mond, or cvs thereof, is reported to tolerate full sunlight, high pH, laterite, lime, low pH,
|
||
mine-spoil, poor soil, salt spray, sand, shade, slope, waterlogging, and wind.^^*^^^’^^^
|
||
Distribution — Indigenous to Andaman Islands and islands of Malay Peninsula, now
|
||
widely cultivated in the tropics of the Old and New Worlds. Extensively planted in tropical
|
||
India and Sri Lanka, in West Africa from Senegal to Cameroons, Madagascar, Malaysia,
|
||
and East Indies. Now pantropical.^^^
|
||
Ecology — Ranging from Subtropical Dry to Moist through Tropical Very Dry to Wet
|
||
Forest Life Zones, Indian almond is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 4.8 to 42.9
|
||
dm (mean of 92 cases = 17.7), annual temperature of 20.4 to 29.9 (mean of 66 cases =
|
||
25.2), and pH of 4.5 to 8.78 (mean of 13 cases = 6.1).®^ Though it grows well in sand or
|
||
shingle, it also thrives in marl and permeable siliceous limestone. It volunteers only in loose
|
||
sand, muck, or marl.^^^ Tolerant of sand and salt, it has been used to stabilize beaches.
|
||
Indian almond thrives in coastal forests in most tropical areas, from sea level to 1,000 m
|
||
altitude, preferring coastal soils or light loamy soils. It has been recommended for tropical
|
||
land soils. According to
|
||
M orton,it grows equally well in medium shade or full sun, and
|
||
is highly wind resistant.
|
||
Cultivation — Propagated exclusively from seeds, which remain viable for at least one
|
||
year. In India, whole fruits, exhibiting 25% germination, are planted. Seeds germinate in
|
||
2 to 4 weeks. The tree is extensively planted for the red foliage, as few other trees in the
|
||
tropics develop colored foliage. The tree competes well with weeds.
|
||
Harvesting — Rotations of 10 to 15 years are average. Fruits are harvested as they ripen.
|
||
They have a very hard shell, which is easier to crack after the nuts are dry, often cracked
|
||
between stones. In India, there are two crops a year, spring (April to May) and fall (October
|
||
to November). There is more-or less constant fruiting in the Caribbean. Perhaps the crop
|
||
would be desirable to harvest if mechanical means of cracking and cleaning the nuts were
|
||
devised. Kernels yield nearly 55% oil by extraction and 35% by expression.
|
||
Yields and economics — Trees may attain 6 m height in 3 years. A lO-year-old plantation
|
||
is expected to yield 2.25 to 3.6 MT/ha/year.^^^ Grown as a shade tree for cardamon, Indian
|
||
almond contributed annually 9,300 kg/ha leaf m ulch.In Jamaica, nuts run $0.02 to $0.10
|
||
each, normally selling for $0.05 each in 1976.^^^
|
||
Energy — The wood (sp. gr. 0.59) is often employed as fuel. Erroneously equating
|
||
Term inalia catappa a synonym of B ucida bu ceras, Cannell^^ suggests that the annual litterfall
|
||
is only 1.7 MT/ha in the Guanica Forest of Puerto Rico, the current annual increment only
|
||
2 MT for a forest with 2,160 trees >5 cm DBH, averaging 7.8 m, basal area of 10.7 m%a
|
||
and standing aerial biomass of 39.1 MT/ha, 36.9 in wood, bark, and branches, 1.7 in fruits
|
||
and foliage.
|
||
Biotic factors — Browne^^ lists the following fungi as affecting this species: C ercospora
|
||
catappae, D ip lo d ia catappae, F om es durissim us, F. fa stu o sa s, M yxorm ia term inaliae, P hel-
|
||
linus gilvas, P h yllosticta catappae, P olyrhizon term inaliae, S clerotiam rolfsii, and Spha-
|
||
celom a term inaliae. Also listed are D endrophthoe fa lca ta (Angiospermae); A m blyrhinus
|
||
p o rico llis. A po d era s tranquebaricus, A racceru s fa scic a la tu s, O ncideres cingulata (Coleóp
|
||
tera); C occu s hesperidum , S aissetia coffeae, S. nigra (Hemiptera); A crocercops erioplaca,
|
||
A . ordin atella, A . supplex, A . term inaliae, A n th eraeapaph ia, D asych ira m endosa, E u proctis
|
||
scintillans, L ym antria am pia, M etanastria hyrtaca, P a ra sa lepida, S clepa celtis, T rabala
|
||
vishnoa, Trypanophora semihyalina (Lepidoptera); and Rhipiphorothrips cruentatus, R. karna
|
||
(Thysanoptera). In India, parakeets steal much of the crop. According to Reed^^® the flowers
|
||
yield a nectar for honey, which is difficult to collect by bees. In addition, he lists the fungi
|
||
C ercospora catappae, G nom ia sp., H arknessia term inaliae, P h om opsis term inaliae, P oly-
|
||
p o ru s calcutensis, and S clerotiam rolfsii. It is also attacked by the nematode, R otylenchas
|
||
reniformis.^^'^^^ For Puerto Rico, Stevenson^®® lists F usiococcum m icrosperm um , R hyti-
|
||
dhysterium rafalam , and T ram etes corragata.
|
||
284 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
TRAP A NATANS L. and other species (TRAPACEAE) — Water-Chestnut, Jesuit Nut, Water
|
||
Caltrops
|
||
Uses — Water-chestnuts are used as a nut, fresh or roasted, made into a flour, served as
|
||
a cooked vegetable, or made into a confection, candied much as true chestnuts in Europe.
|
||
According to Rosengarten,^®^ they have been consumed in central Europe since neolithic
|
||
time. Fresh or boiled nuts are good in salads, having a floury texture and an agreeable nutty
|
||
flavor. Nuts are often made into rosaries. Roast seed are sometimes used as a coffee substitute.
|
||
Since water-chestnuts resemble water hyacinths, it has been suggested that they might be
|
||
used to supplant the water hyacinth, an economic approach to biological control.
|
||
Folk medicine — Reported to be alterative, astringent, refrigerant, and tonic, various
|
||
species of Trapa are used in folk remedies for anasarca, bronchitis, cancer, cough, diarrhea,
|
||
dropsy, fever, flux, rinderpest, and sunstroke.^’ In Japan, the fruits are used in folk remedies
|
||
for esophageal, gastric, gastrointestinal, lung, stomach, and uterine cancers. Ayurvedics
|
||
use fruits of T. bispinosa (figured) for biliousness, blood disorders, erysipelas, fractures,
|
||
fatigue, inflammations, leprosy, strangury, and urinary disorders. Yunani, who consider the
|
||
fruit aperitif, aphrodisiac, and febrifuge, use the fruit for bad teeth, biliousness, bronchitis,
|
||
fever, lumbago pain, sore throat, and thirst. Cambodians use the infusion of the rind of the
|
||
fruit for asthenia due to malaria or some other type of fever.
|
||
285
|
||
Chemistry — Per 100 g, the fruit of T. bispinosa is reported to contain 348 calories,
|
||
12.2 g protein, 1.2 g fat, 82.7 g total carbohydrate, 2.4 g fiber, 3.9 g ash, 160 mg Ca, 339
|
||
mg P, 3.6 mg Fe, 62.5 mg Na, 1345 mg K, 0.0 ¡ig beta-carotene equivalent, 0.39 mg
|
||
thiamine, 0.18 mg riboflavin, 5.95 mg niacin, and 20.8 mg ascorbic acid. The seed of 7.
|
||
bispinosa, per 100 g, is reported to contain 15.7 g protein, 1.0 g fat, 79.7 g total carbohydrate,
|
||
2.0 g fiber, 3.7 g ash, 66.7 mg Ca, 500 mg P, 2.7 mg Fe, 163 mg Na, 2166 mg K, 0.17
|
||
mg thiamine, 0.23 mg riboflavin, 2.00 mg niacin, and 30.0 mg ascorbic acid. Per 100 g,
|
||
the fruit of 7. natans is reported to contain 11.9 g protein and 1.0 g f a t . The W ealth o f
|
||
India^^ reports that the kernels contain: moisture, 70.0; protein, 4.7; fat, 0.3; fiber, 0.6;
|
||
other carbohydrates, 23.3; and mineral matter, 1.1%; calcium 20; phosphorus, 150; and
|
||
iron, 0.8 mg/100 g. Other minerals reported are copper, 1.27; manganese, 5.7; magnesium,
|
||
38; sodium, 49; and potassium, 650 mg/100 g. Iodine (50.6 |x/l(X) g) is also present. The
|
||
vitamin contents are thiamine, 0.05; riboflavin, 0.07; nicotinic acid, 0.6; and vitamin C, 9
|
||
mg/100 g; vitamin A, 20 IU/100 g. Kernels contain 15.8 mg/100 g oxalates (dry wt). Beta-
|
||
amylase and much phosphorylase have been reported in the kernels. The nutritive value of
|
||
flour, prepared from dried kernels, is as follows: moisture, 10.6; protein, 8.0; fat, 0.6; and
|
||
minerals, 2.6%, calcium, 69; phosphorus, 343; iron, 2.8; and thiamine, 0.44 mg/100 g.
|
||
The starch, isolated from the flour, consists of 15% amylose, 85% amylopectin.^® According
|
||
to Hager’s Handbook, the nut (7. natans) contains 37% water, 8 to 10% crude protein,
|
||
0.7% fat, 1.3% crude fiber, 49% N-free extract (52% starch, 3.2% dextrose). The fruit husk
|
||
contains 10% tannin.
|
||
Description — Hardy aquatic annual or perennial herbs, rooted in the mud, with un
|
||
branched stems 0.5 to 2 m long. Plants usually floating with submerged sessile leaves, the
|
||
lowest opposite, the others alternate, pinnatifid, often functioning as roots; floating leaves
|
||
in a large rosette, often beautifully variegated, rhombic to nearly orbicular, glabrous above,
|
||
pubescent at least along the veins beneath, about 7.5 cm in diameter, petioles to 17 cm
|
||
long, pubescent, often with a fusiform swelling. Flowers solitary, tetramerous, in axils of
|
||
floating leaves, borne centrally on short stalks above the surface of the water, small incon
|
||
spicuous, 1 to 2 cm across, white; sepals narrowly triangular, keeled accrescent and indurated
|
||
in fruit, persistent and forming 2, 3, or 4 horns; petals white, about 8 mm long, caducous.
|
||
Nut solitary, indéhiscent, 2 to 3.5 cm long, 2 to 5.5 cm wide; roots abundant, much-
|
||
branched. Flowers June to July; fruits autumn.
|
||
Germplasm — Reported from the China-Japan Center of Diversity, water-chestnut, or
|
||
CVS thereof, is reported to tolerate weeds and waterlogging.®^ Although many species and
|
||
varieties have been described, I am inclined to accept the opinion of The W ealth o f India,
|
||
“ the more prevalent view seems to be that T rapa is a monotypic genus represented by 7.
|
||
natans Linn, a polymorphic species’’. Great variation is found in size of fruit and in number
|
||
and development of the horns. Some variations seem to be due to edaphic factors, as
|
||
abnormally high calcium or low potassium and nitrogen concentrations of the water in which
|
||
they grow.^^® The related 7. bicornis, the Chinese Ling, is locally important as a food crop.
|
||
7. bispinosa is widely cultivated in India and Kashmir, as the “ Singhara Nut’’. (2n = 36,
|
||
40, 48).®^*^'^*^®^
|
||
Distribution — Native to central and eastern Europe and Asia, water-chestnuts have been
|
||
used for food since Neolithic times. They were introduced in 19th century America. The
|
||
plants spread and became established in the eastern U.S., often choking waterways or
|
||
crowding out other plants.^^®
|
||
Ecology — Ranging from Cool Temperate Moist to Wet through Subtropical Moist Forest
|
||
Life Zones, water-chestnut is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 4.3 to 13.2 dm
|
||
(mean of 5 cases = 8.1), annual temperature of 8.3 to 21.0°C (mean of 5 cases = 11.4°C),
|
||
and pH of 5.9 to 7.2 (mean of 3 cases = 6.7).®^ Hardy to Zone 5; average annual minimum
|
||
temperature of -23.3 to -20.6°C ( - 10 to -5^).^"^^ T rapa natans is more hardy than the
|
||
286 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
Ling (r. bicornis). The former thrives in ponds and lakes, along slow streams and in stagnant
|
||
waters, growing best in nutrient-rich but not strongly calcareous waters. It is mainly temperate
|
||
in climatic requirements.
|
||
Cultivation — Water-chestnut is propagated by seed, which must be kept in water before
|
||
they are sown. They lose their power to germinate quickly if out of water. Seeds are sown
|
||
in mud. Plants grown in pools or tubs in eastern North America with 5 to 10 cm of loamy
|
||
soil and filled with water. Plants may also be simply laid on the surface of the water, and
|
||
they adapt themselves to the situation.
|
||
Harvesting — Harvesting the fruits (nuts or seeds) is by hand-picking, sometimes by
|
||
boat, depending on the size of the field or pond.^^^ In India, fruits are ready for harvest
|
||
about 3 weeks after flowering, i.e., from September to December (to February). At first
|
||
nuts are harvested once every 2 weeks, then every week, and then nearly every day from
|
||
November onward.
|
||
Yields and economics — Biomass yields of 10 MT/ha seem reasonable. Yields of singhara
|
||
nut run 4.8 to 6.2 MT/ha. The W ealth o f India reports yields of 1,760 to 4,440 (to 13,200)
|
||
kg nut per ha.^°
|
||
Energy — In Japan, the maximum biomass in a floating water-chestnut community was
|
||
3 MT/ha at two seasonal peaks, dipping below 1 MT/ha between peaks. But the total dead
|
||
material may add up to nearly 8 MT/ha, indicating annual biomass potential (life expectancy
|
||
of the leaves averaged less than 1 month).
|
||
Biotic factors — The following fungi are known to attack water-chestnut: S eptoria tra-
|
||
paen atan tis and T richoderm a flavum.^'^^ A leafspot, caused by B ipolar is tetram era, seriously
|
||
affects India’s crop. Captan is reported to control the spread. The Singhara beetle, G alerucella
|
||
birm anica is an important widespread pest, controlled in India with 5% BHC.^® Dusting
|
||
tobacco or Pyrodust 40(X) at 44 kg/ha kills adults and grubs. Chironomid larvae, feeding on
|
||
petioles and pedicels, may induce malformation of the fruits. H altica cyanea, the blue beetle,
|
||
feeds and breeds on the leaves. B agous trapae damages soft submerged stems. The aphid
|
||
R hopalosiphum nym pheae occurs on upper leaves, sometimes in large numbers, and often
|
||
in company with the coccinellid beetles P ullus nobilus and P. piescen s. Larvae of N ym phula
|
||
gan geticalis excavate shelters in the swollen petioles. B agous vicinus and N anophyes rufipes
|
||
also bore into the petiole.^®’
|
||
287
|
||
TRECULIA AFRICANA Decne. (MORACEAE) — African Breadfruit, African Boxwood,
|
||
Okwa, Muzinda, Ukwa
|
||
Uses — Seeds are removed from the pulp of African breadfruit by macerating with water,
|
||
and then eaten cooked, or ground into a meal or flour, or used in soups. Conversely, the
|
||
seeds can be roasted until the testa becomes brittle for easy removal, the cotyledons then
|
||
consumed. According to Makinde et al.,*^® the seeds are widely consumed only among the
|
||
Igbo of Nigeria. “ Almond Milk” is a beverage made from this meal. Seeds may be roasted
|
||
or boiled, peeled and eaten as a dessert nut, or fried in oil. Seeds, with a groundnut flavor,
|
||
also yield an edible oil. Seeds or oil are put in soaps. Seeds are also used to flavor alcoholic
|
||
beverages. Heartwood is golden-yellow or yellow-brown (though the very narrow sapwood
|
||
is yellow-white), very dense and heavy, faintly elastic and flexible, of fine even structure;
|
||
usable for furniture, wood carving, inlay work and turnery; timber usually marketed as
|
||
African Boxwood.
|
||
Folk medicine — Reported to be laxative, tonic, and vermifuge, African breadfruit is a
|
||
folk remedy for cough, fever, leprosy, neck ailments, tooth extraction, roundworms, and
|
||
swelling.Nigerians use the bark decoction for constipation and coughs. Medicinally, a
|
||
root decoction is used as febrifuge and vermifuge, or drunk as a tonic after illness. It is
|
||
used for roundworms in children. Bark is used for coughs and as a laxative, and for leprosy
|
||
Chemistry — Per 1(X) g, the seed (ZMB) is reported to contain 415 calories, 13.9 g
|
||
protein, 6.2 g fat, 77.5 g total carbohydrate, 1.8 g fiber, 2.4 g ash, 140 mg Ca, and 349
|
||
mg Seeds contain ca.4 to 7% total lipids, Makinde et al.^^® reporting 5% oil, 13% crude
|
||
protein. Of the protein extracted, glutelins constituted 53.3%, 23.8% albumins, and 33.8%
|
||
globulins. Makinde et al.^^® give the amino acid composition shown in Table 1. Table 2*^®
|
||
compares defatted ukwa protein with other foods. Remember that defatted seeds are not
|
||
directly comparable to the usual seed analysis (defatted ukwa seeds contain 19%, cf. 13%
|
||
288 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
Table 1
|
||
AMINO ACID COMPOSITION OF T.
|
||
AFRICAN A (UKWA) PROTEIN*’»
|
||
m&16 g mg46 g
|
||
Amino acids of N Amino acids of N
|
||
Aspartic acid 105 Isoleucine 56
|
||
Threonine 52 Leucine 74
|
||
Serine 67 Tyrosine 56
|
||
Glutamic acid 137 Phenylalanine 76
|
||
Proline 47 Lysine 62
|
||
Glycine 72 Histidine 38
|
||
Alanine 40 Ammonia 18
|
||
Half-cystine 8 Arginine 79
|
||
Valine 61 Tryptophan 2
|
||
Methionine 9
|
||
Table 2
|
||
ESSENTIAL AMINO ACID CONTENT OF DEFATTED UKWA SEED PROTEIN
|
||
COMPARED TO SOME OTHER SEED PROTEINS, MAIZE, AND EGG*’»
|
||
mg of amino acid per 16 g of nitrogen
|
||
Defatted
|
||
Ukwa FACVWHO NAS^RC Harosoy Whole Kidney
|
||
Amino acids seed (1973) (1980) soybean Cowpeas maize beans
|
||
Egg
|
||
Histidine 38 17 26 29 23 24 26
|
||
Isoleucine 56 40 42 42 40 40 63 42
|
||
Leucine 74 70 70 80 76 196 88 81
|
||
Lysine 62 55 51 65 68 25 67 67
|
||
Total SAA 17 35 26 10 10 19 60 9
|
||
Total arom. A A 132 60 73 49 53 44 99 53
|
||
Threonine 52 40 35 37 37 47 51
|
||
42
|
||
Valine 61 50 48 46 48 54 68
|
||
51
|
||
Tryptophan 2 10 11 18 14 6 34
|
||
15
|
||
CP for whole seed). The seed fat contains 24.1% palmitic-, 11.7% stearic-, 46% oleic-,
|
||
and 18% linoleic-acids. Edet et al.^’^ report the seeds to contain 7.8% moisture in terms of
|
||
wet weight; and in terms of dry weight, 13.4% protein, 18.9% fat, 1.4% fiber, 2.1% ash,
|
||
58.1% carbohydrate, 3.0% oxalate, and per 100 g, 7 mg Na, 184 mg Mg, 18 mg Ca, 585
|
||
mg K, 382 mg P, 3.9 mg Cu, 1.6 mg Fe, 0.20 mg Cr, 7.5 mg Zn, 6.0 mg beta-carotene,
|
||
0.5 mg thiamin, 0.3 mg riboflavin, 45 mg ascorbic acid.
|
||
Toxicity — Sap of the male tree is caustic and toxic, and if applied on cotton to a carious
|
||
tooth, will cause it to fall out. No evidence supports the idea that leaves falling into water-
|
||
holes are poisonous to horses.
|
||
Description — Unbuttressed medium-to-large tree, up to 27 m tall and 3 m in girth, bole
|
||
cylindrical or squarish, fluted at base up to 7 m, bark pale-gray, smooth, latex white;
|
||
branchlets purple-gray, pithy. Leaves alternate, simple, glabrous, glossy above, elliptic to
|
||
ovate-elliptic, 20 to 25 cm long, 7.5 to 12 cm wide, sometimes larger, apex shortly pointed,
|
||
base unequally rounded, petiole very short. Flowers dioecious, male and female flowers in
|
||
separate inflorescences; male flower-heads globular, 5 cm in diameter, brownish-yellow,
|
||
very shortly pedunculate, stamens 3. Fruits spherical, up to 45 cm in diameter, and 16 kg
|
||
in weight, subsessile on the trunk and main limbs, covered with coarse, spine-like tubercles,
|
||
becoming yellow-brown and soft when ripe. Seeds very numerous, over 1,500 per fruit.
|
||
289
|
||
smooth, ellipsoid, buried in spongy pulp, ca.1.25 cm long. Flowers January to February
|
||
fruits February to March (Africa).
|
||
Germplasm — Reported from the African Center of Diversity, African breadfruit, or cvs
|
||
thereof, is reported to tolerate drought, low pH, and waterlogging.^^
|
||
Distribution — Native of West Africa (Guinea, Ivory Coast, Gold Coast, Nigeria, Ca-
|
||
meroons. Sierra Leone, Ghana), from Senegal to Angola, Uganda and Nile Land.^^®
|
||
Ecology — Ranging from Subtropical Moist through Tropical Dry to Moist Forest Life
|
||
Zones, African breadfruit is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 13.6 to 24.1 dm
|
||
(mean of 3 cases = 18.3), annual temperature of 23.5 to 26.6°C (mean of 3 cases =
|
||
25.4°C), and pH of 5.0 to 5.3 (mean of 2 cases = 5.2).®^ Evergreen and deciduous forests.
|
||
Tree of tropical forests in comparatively dry zones and in villages where planted. Soil under
|
||
the tree is moist throughout the dry season from condensation. It is usually found near
|
||
streams or in swampy forests.
|
||
Cultivation — Frequently planted in villages and about homesteads.
|
||
Harvesting — No data available.
|
||
Yields and economics — Uses for the fruit and lumber are mainly local but widespread
|
||
in Tropical Africa.
|
||
Energy — The wood is used for firewood.
|
||
Biotic factors — Fruits are eaten by antelopes and large forest snails.
|
||
290 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
VIROLA SEBIFERA Aubl. (MYRISTICACEAE) — Virola Nut, Red Ucuuba
|
||
Uses — The seeds are the source of Virola fat, a nutmeg-scented fat which soon becomes
|
||
rancid. It is used for making aromatic candles and soaps. Seeds are pierced onto sharp sticks
|
||
as candle-nuts. The light, soft, pale-brown wood is easy to work but sap stains badly. It is
|
||
considered suitable for boxes, crates, concrete forms, plywood, and cheap interior construc
|
||
tion. Duke^® notes that some of the economic uses (including narcotic uses) ascribed to this
|
||
species may be due to confusion with other species in the taxonomically perplexing genus.
|
||
The jungle names ucachuba, ucahuba, ucauba, uchuhuba, ucuiba, and ucuuba are some of
|
||
many possible orthographic variants.
|
||
Fold medicine — The liniments made from V. sebifera are used in folk remedies for
|
||
tumors. Reported to be a fumitory, the virola is a folk remedy for fever.^* Brazilians use
|
||
the fat as a poultice and for rheumatism. The kino-like resin is used for aphtha, angina,
|
||
caries, and erysipelas. Homeopathically, it is used for abscesses, furuncles, lymphadenitis,
|
||
and pyodermy. As a tea, the leaves are used for colic and dyspepsia.
|
||
Chemistry — Fatty acids of the nuts contain 5 to 13.3% lauric acid, 66.6 to 73% myristic
|
||
acid, 8.9 to 11% palmitic acid, 6.6 to 11% oleic acid, and up to 3.0% linoleic acid.^^^
|
||
Hager’s Handbook*®^ lists N,N-dimethyltryptamine and beta-sitosterol for the husk. Lopes,
|
||
Yoshida, and Gottlieb‘S report lignans from this species, (2R, 3S)-3-(3,4-dimethyoxyben-
|
||
zyl)-2-(3, 4-methylenedioxybenzyl)-butyrolactone was isolated from the seeds and (2R, 3R)-
|
||
3-(3,4-dimethyoxybenzyl)-2-(3, 4-methylenedioxybenzyl)-butyrolactone, (2R, 3R)-2,3-di-
|
||
(3,4-dimethoxybenzyl)-butyrolactone, and (2R, 3R)-2,3-di-(3,4-methylenedioxybenzyl)-bu-
|
||
tyrolactone were isolated from the pericarp.
|
||
Description — Dioecious, often buttressed trees to 40 m, the younger branchlets per
|
||
sistently tomentose or glabrescent. Leaf blades glabrous above, with persistent, ochraceous
|
||
stalked-stellate hairs below, coriaceous, oblong to elliptic-ovate or obovate, acute to acu
|
||
minate, cordate, truncate or acute, 10 to 47 cm long, 4 to 15 cm broad; secondary veins 10
|
||
to 28 per side, averaging less than 1/cm along the midrib, the tertiary veins rather prominent
|
||
291
|
||
below; petioles canaliculate, 8 to 25 mm long, 2 to 5 mm broad. Staminate flowers in much-
|
||
branched panicles; pedicels 0 to 3 mm long; bracts inconspicuous or absent; perianth tardily
|
||
3- (to 5-) lobed, 1.3 to 3.0 mm long; anthers 3 (to 5), 0.7 to 1.5 mm long, usually connate
|
||
to the apex, the infra-antheral portion of the androecium 0.2 to 1.0 mm long. Pistillate
|
||
flowers solitary or clustered in racemes 3 to 7 cm long, 2 to 7 cm broad; pedicels 1 to 4
|
||
mm long; tepals partially connate, with subpinnate ochraceous pubescence; ovary 1-carpel-
|
||
late, with a sessile, obscurely 2-lobed stigma. Fruits 10 to 30 per inflorescence, the velutinous
|
||
ligneous pericarp ultimately dehiscing longitudinally into 2 valves, subglobose, the aril
|
||
laciniate.^® Germination cryptocotylar but epigeal, the eophylls supracotyledonary.^^
|
||
Germplasm — Reported from the South and Central American Centers of Diversity,
|
||
virola nut, or cvs thereof, is reported to tolerate waterlogging, but not to the extent that
|
||
Virola surinamensis tolerates flooding.
|
||
Distribution — Nicaragua to Bolivia, Brazil, and Peru.^^
|
||
Ecology — Ranging from Subtropical (Premontane) Wet to Rain through Tropical Moist
|
||
to Rain Forest Life Zones, virola nut is estimated to tolerate annual precipitation of 20 to
|
||
45 dm, annual temperature of 23 to 27°C, and pH of 6.0 to 8.0.
|
||
Cultivation — Rarely, if ever, cultivated. The cryptocotylar seedlings may be moved
|
||
from beneath the parent tree.
|
||
Harvesting — In Panama, Croat^^ speculates that species flowers twice a year, though
|
||
mature fruits are seen nearly all year. The length of fruit maturation period is unknown.
|
||
Gordon**^ describes an unusual collecting method in Brazil. The small subspheroid seeds
|
||
fall to the forest floor in alluvial forest. When the floods come, the seeds float and go
|
||
downstream, with the flood, to be scooped up with hand-nets by women and children.
|
||
Yields and economics — In 1942, Gordon,referring to both V. sebifera and V.
|
||
surinamensis, notes that 4,0(X) to 5,0(X) tons are harvested per year in Brazil. According to
|
||
Markley,^^ in Brazil, “ Production of oil has varied between 650 and 1,600 MT/year, and,
|
||
like other soap oils derived from wild plants, production remains static or is declining,
|
||
maximum production having occurred in 1941.“
|
||
Energy — Virola candle-nuts are a poor man’s source of energy in many tropical de
|
||
veloping countries. The trees offer both fire-wood, leaf litter at the rate of ca. 5 MT/ha,
|
||
and candle-nuts for energy purposes.
|
||
Biotic factors — The wood is subject to pinhole borer injury, if cut logs are allowed to
|
||
lie after cutting in the forest.^ Merulius lacrymans is reported on V. merendonis.^^^
|
||
292
|
||
Handbook of Nuts
|
||
VIROLA SURINAMENSIS (Rol.) Warb. (MYRISTICACEAE) — Ucahuba Nut, White Ucu-
|
||
uba
|
||
Uses — Seeds are the source of Ucahuba or Ucuiba Butter, a solid resembling Cacao
|
||
butter. The seeds are threaded onto wooden spikes and used as candle-nuts by various
|
||
Amerindian groups. The wood, moderately hard, is easily worked.
|
||
Folk medicine — Ucahuba is a folk remedy for rheumatism.
|
||
Chemistry — The fatty acids of the nut are 0.7% decanoic, 13.0% lauric, 69.7% myristic,
|
||
3.0% palmitic, 7.7% oleic, and 5.1% linoleic. Of the saturated fatty acids, 17.6% are C12
|
||
or below, 72.9% are C14, and 4.4% are Cj^, for a total of 94.9%. Of the glycerides, 85%
|
||
are trisaturated, 15% are disaturated, and none are monosaturated. Another breakdown shows
|
||
0.7% capric-, 16.9% lauric-, 72.9% myristic, 4.4% palmitic, and 5.1% linoleic-acids.*^*
|
||
Description — Dioecious tree, to 30 m or more tall and ca. 60 cm dbh, often moderately
|
||
buttressed; outer bark coarse, hard, shallowly fissured, reddish-brown; inner bark tan, reddish
|
||
on its outer surface; branches often spiraled or clustered, extending nearly horizontally; parts
|
||
when young bearing ferruginous, sessile, stellate, pubescence, glabrate in age; sap red,
|
||
lacking distinctive odor. Petioles canaliculate, 5 to 10 mm long; leaf blades oblong, acu
|
||
minate, rounded to acute at base, 9 to 16 cm long, 1.5 to 4.5 cm wide, coriaceous; major
|
||
lateral veins in 20 to 30 pairs. All parts of inflorescences densely short-pubescent, the
|
||
trichomes mostly stellate; pedicels ca. 1.5 mm long; perianth ca. 2 mm long, 3- or 4-lobed
|
||
usually to middle or beyond, the lobes thick, acute to rounded at apex, spreading at anthesis;
|
||
staminate flowers in fascicles on panicles to 4 cm long; anthers mostly (2)3(6), connate to
|
||
apex. Pistillate flowers in clusters of 3 to many, in racemes to 5 cm long; ovary 1-carpellate,
|
||
± ovate; stigma sessile, 2-cleft. Capsules ovoid-ellipsoid, thick-walled, light-orange, 3 to
|
||
3.5 cm long, bearing dense, short, stellate pubescence; valves 2, woody, ca. 5 mm thick,
|
||
splitting widely at maturity. Seed 1, ellipsoid, ca. 2 cm long, the aril deeply laciniate, red
|
||
at maturity (white until just before maturity), fleshy, tasty but becoming bitter after being
|
||
chewed.^^
|
||
Germplasm — Reported from the South and Central American Centers of Diversity,
|
||
ucahuba nut, or cvs thereof, is reported to tolerate waterlogging. Natives of the Hyalea
|
||
distinguish V. surinamensis as “ ucuuba branca” from V. sebifera as “ ucuuba vermelha” .^^^
|
||
But in the market, both are sold as ucuhuba fat.
|
||
Distribution — Costa Rica and Panama to the Guianas and Brazil and the lesser Antilles.
|
||
Duke^* did not include V. surinamensis in the Flora of Panama. In the Brazilian Hyalea,
|
||
the trees grow along river banks.
|
||
Ecology — Ranging from Subtropical (Premontane) Moist to Wet through Tropical Moist
|
||
to Wet Forest Life Zones, ucahuba nut is estimated to tolerate annual precipitation of 20 to
|
||
40 dm, annual temperature of 23 to 27°C, and pH of 6.0 to 8.0.®^
|
||
Cultivation — Not usually cultivated.
|
||
Harvesting — In Panama, flowers from June to March (peaking November to February),
|
||
maturing fruits from February to August.^^ In the Hyalea of Brazil, the fruits, falling into
|
||
the water (February to July), float and are gathered with nets made out of bark.^^^
|
||
Yields and economics — According to information in Mors and Rizzini,^^^ a single tree
|
||
yields ca. 25 kg ucuuba fat per year. According to Markley,^°® in Brazil, “ Production of
|
||
oil has varied between 650 and 1,600 m tons a year, and, like other soap oils derived from
|
||
wild plants, production remains static or is declining, maximum production having occurred
|
||
in 1941.“
|
||
Energy — Candlenuts are a poor man’s source of energy in many tropical developing
|
||
countries. The trees offer fire-wood, leaf litter at the rate of ca. 5 MT/ha, and candle-nuts
|
||
for energy purposes.
|
||
Biotic factors — No data available.
|
||
293
|
||
R E F E R E N C E S
|
||
1. Abarquez, A. H., Pili Management for Resin and Nut Production, Canopy Int., 8(4), 14, 1982.
|
||
2. Acosta-Solis, M., Tagua or Vegetable Ivory — A Forest Product of Ecuador, Econ. Bot., 2, 46, 1948.
|
||
3. Agaceta, L. M., Dumag, P. U., and Batolos, J. A., Studies on the Control of Snail Vectors or Fascioliasis:
|
||
Molluscicidal Activity of Some Indigenous Plants, in Bureau of Animal Industry, Manila, Philippines,
|
||
NSDB Technology Journal, Abstracts on Tropical Agriculture 7. 38008; (2), 30, 1981.
|
||
4. Agriculture Handbook 165, Index of Plant Diseases in the United States, Forest Service, U.S. Department
|
||
of Agriculture, Washington, D C., 1960, 531.
|
||
5. Agriculture Handbook No. 450, Seeds of Woody Plants of the United States, Forest Service, U.S. Department
|
||
of Agriculture, Washington, D .C ., 1974, 883.
|
||
6. Albuquerque, F. C. De, Duarte, M. De L. R., Manco, G. R., and Silva, H. M. E., Leaf Blight of
|
||
Brazil Nut (Bertholletia excelsa) caused by Phytophthora heveae, Pesquisa Agropecuaria Brasileira, 9(10),
|
||
101, 1977.
|
||
7. Alexander, J. A., Artocarpus integrifolia (L.), the Jack-tree, J. Hort. Home Farmer, March, 1910.
|
||
8. Allen, O. N. and Allen, E. K., The Leguminosae, The University of Wisconsin Press, Madison, 1981,
|
||
812.
|
||
9. Allen, P. H., The Rain Forests of Golfo Duke, University of Florida Press, Gainesville, 1956, 417.
|
||
10. Altschul, S. von R., Drugs and Foods from Little-known Plants, Harvard University Press, Cambridge,
|
||
Mass., 1973, 366.
|
||
11. Anon., Oiticica Oil, Georgia Inst. Tech. State Eng. Exp. Sta., Vol. 11, Bull. 13, 1952.
|
||
12. Anon., Coir: Economic Characteristics, Trends and Problems, Commodity Bull. Series, No. 44, Food and
|
||
Agriculture Organization, Rome, 1969, 1.
|
||
13. Anon., Vasicine, the Alkaloid of Adhatoda vasica, A Novel Oxytocic and Abortifacient, RRL, Jammu
|
||
NewsL, 6(2), 9, 1979.
|
||
14. Anon., Antifeedant Agents from Adhatoda vasica, RRL, Jammu News., 7(5), 21, 1980.
|
||
15. Anon., Here Comes (Again), Canopy Int., 7(1), 6, 1981.
|
||
16. Anon., Arizona Pecan Orchards Thrive on Climate and Mechanization, Arizona Land People, September,
|
||
1, 1982.
|
||
17. Archibald, The use of the fruit of Balanites aegyptiaca in the control of Schistosomiasis in the Sudan,
|
||
Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med., 27(2), 207, 1933.
|
||
18. Arroyo, C. A., Fuel for Home Use, Canopy Int., 7(7), 15, 1981.
|
||
19. Ashiru, G. A. and Quarcoo, T., Vegetative Propagation of Kola (Cola nitida (Vent.) Schott & Endlicher),
|
||
Trop. Agric. (Trinidad), 48(1), 85, 1971.
|
||
20. Ashworth, F. L., Butternuts, Siebold (Japanese) Walnuts, and Their Hybrids, in Jaynes, R. A ., Ed.,
|
||
Handbook of North American Nut Trees, Northern Nut Growers Association, Knoxville, Tenn., 1969, 224.
|
||
21. Ata, J. K. B. A. and Fejer, D ., Allantoin in Shea Kernel, Ghana J. Ag. Sci., 8(2), 149, 1975.
|
||
22. Atal, C. K., Chemistry and Pharmacology of Vasicine — A New Oxytocic and Abortifacient, RRL, Jammu,
|
||
India, 1980, 155.
|
||
23. Atchley, A. A., Nutritional Value of Palms, Principes, 28(3), 138, 1984.
|
||
24. Awasthi, Y. C ., Bhatnagar, S. C ., and Nitra, C. R., Chemurgy of Sapotaceous Plants: Madhuca Species
|
||
of India, Econ. Bot., 29, 380, 1975.
|
||
25. Bailey, L. H., Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture, McMillan, New York, 1922.
|
||
26. Bailey, W . E ., Oyster Nut Growing in British East Africa, Report of American Vice Consul, Nairobi,
|
||
Kenya Colony, 1, 1940.
|
||
27. Baker, H. G. and Harris, B. J., Bat Pollination of the Silk Cotton Tree, Ceiba pentandra (L.) Gaertn.
|
||
(Sensu Lato), in Ghana, J. Afr. Sci. Assoc., 5, 1, 1959.
|
||
28. Balandrin, M. F. and Klocke, J. A., Medicinal Plants (Letter), Science, 229, 1036, 1985.
|
||
29. Balick, M. J., Amazonian Oil Palms of Promise: A Survey, Econ. Bot., 33(1), 11, 1979.
|
||
30. Balick, M. J., Economic Botany of the Guajibo, I. Palmae, Econ. Bot., 33(4), 361, 1979.
|
||
31. Balick, M. J., New York Botanical Garden, Personal Communication, 1984.
|
||
32. Balick, M. J. and Gershoff, S. N., Nutritional Evaluation of the Jessenia bataua Palm: Source of High
|
||
Quality Protein and Oil from Tropical America, Econ. Bot., 35, 261, 1981.
|
||
33. Barrau, J., The Sago Palms and Other Food Plants of Marsh Dwellers in the South Pacific Islands, Econ.
|
||
Bot., 13, 151, 1959.
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370. Tsuchiya, T. and Iwaki, H., Biomass and Net Primary Production of a Floating Leaved Plant Trapa natans
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Community in Lake Kasumigaura Japan, Jpn. J. Ecol., 33(1), 47, 1983.
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371. Duke, J. A ., Herbalbum, An LP album of Herbal Folk Music, Produced by Vip Vipperman and Buddy
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Blackmon, Grand Central Studios, Nashville, Tenn., 1986.
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372. Devlin, R. M. and Demoranville, 1. E ., Wild Bean Control on Cranberry Bogs with Maleic Hydrazide,
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Proc. Northeastern Weed Science Soc., 35, 349, 1981.
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373. Sanchez, F. and Duke, J. A., La Papa de Nadi, El Campesino, 115(4), 15, 1984.
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374. Walter, W. M., Croom, Jr., E. M., Catignani, G. L., and Thresher, W. C., Compositional Study of
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380. Stevenson, J. A., The Fungi of Puerto Rico and the American Virgin Islands, Contribution of Reed
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381. Duke, J. A ., Herbalbum: An Anthology of Varicose Verse, J. Medrow, Laurel, Md., 1985.
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382. Golden, A. M., USDA, Personal communication, 1984.
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383. Price, M., Vegetables from a Tree, ECHO, 8(4), 1, 1985.
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384. Ramachandran, C., Peter, K. V., and Gopalakrishnan, P. K., Drumstick (Moringa oleifera) : A
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385. Mahajan, S. and Sharma, Y. K., Production of Rayon Grade Pulp from Moringa oleifera, Indian Forester,
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Evaluation of Water Coagulated with Moringa oleifera Seed Preparations Using Fish, Protozoan, Bacterial,
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Coliphage, Enzyme, and Ames Salmonella Assays, Water S.A., 11(2), 9, 1985.
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387. Price, M., The Benzolive Tree, ECHO, 1 1 ,7 , 1986.
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Sanja Mormga oleifera, Carbohydr. Res., 102(0), 253, 1982.
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392. Kareem, A. A., Sadakathulla, S., and Subramaniam, T. R., Note on the Severe Damage of Moringa
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Fruits by the Fly Gitona sp., South Indian Hort., 22(1/2), 71, 1974.
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393. UHasa, B. A. and Rawal, R. D., Papaver rhoeas and Moringa oleifera, Two New Hosts of Papaya
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394. Milne-Redhead, E. and Polhill, R. M., Eds., Flora of Tropical East Africa, Crown Agents for Overseas
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399. Eggeling, W . J., The Indigenous Trees of the Uganda Protectorate, rev. by I. R. Dale, The Government
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400. Duke, J. A., Handbook of Northeastern Indian Medicinal Plants, Quarterman Publications, Lincoln, Mass.,
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401. Frey, D., The Hog Peanut, TIPSY, 86, 74, 1986.
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402. Marshall, H.H., (Research Station, Morden Manitoba, Canada), correspondence with Noel Vietmeyer,
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307
|
||
FIGURE CREDITS
|
||
With a master’s degree in botany from the University of North Carolina (1956), comple
|
||
mented by 30 years of experience as an illustrator, Peggy K. Duke is excellently qualified
|
||
to prepare the figures for this handbook. Peggy and I were pleased and amazed at how
|
||
generous authors and administrators have been with us, at granting permission to use their
|
||
published illustrations. Thanks to these fine people, as well as several U.S. Department of
|
||
Agriculture (USDA) public domain publications, and the curators of the collections at the
|
||
U.S. National Seed Collection, the National Agricultural Library, and the Smithsonian
|
||
Institution Botany Department, we have been able to piece together illustrations for the
|
||
majority of genera treated in this book. Our special thanks go to:
|
||
P. Kumar P. H. Raven
|
||
M. J. Balick
|
||
H. L. Li C. F. Reed
|
||
H. G. Bedell
|
||
E. L. Little
|
||
E. A. Bell J. L. Reveal
|
||
M. L. Brown P. M. Mazzeo A. Robyns
|
||
R. G. Brown S. A. Mori C. G. G. J. Van Steenis
|
||
O. Degener W. Mors R. L. Wilbur
|
||
E. Forrero G. W. Patterson J. J. Wurdack
|
||
H. Garcia-Barriga G. T. Prance
|
||
C. R. Gunn T. Plowman
|
||
Photographs from the USDA and New York Botanical Gardens collections were consulted
|
||
in concert with published photographs and illustrations, especially Menninger’s and Rosen-
|
||
garten’s, in the publications cited at the end of this book. Mrs. Duke confirmed and/or
|
||
altered details based on seed specimens of the U.S. National Seed Collection, courtesy C.
|
||
R. Gunn; and herbarium specimens at the University of Maryland, courtesy J. L. Reveal;
|
||
the Botany Department of the Smithsonian Institution, courtesy J. J. Wurdack; and the U.S.
|
||
National Arboretum, courtesy P. M. Mazzeo.
|
||
F IG U R E C R E D IT L IS T
|
||
Credit (with permission)
|
||
Scientífíc name
|
||
Acrocomia sclerocarpa Peggy Duke
|
||
Adhatoda vasica After Little***
|
||
After Ochse^^* (courtesy A. Asher & C o., Amsterdam)
|
||
Aleurites moluccana
|
||
Amphicarpaea bracteata After Wilbur^^«
|
||
After Ochse^^* (courtesy A. Asher & C o., Amsterdam)
|
||
Anacardium occidentale
|
||
Apios americana Peggy Duke
|
||
Areca catechu Peggy Duke
|
||
Arenga pianata Peggy Duke
|
||
After Degener*^*
|
||
Artocarpus altilis
|
||
Peggy Duke
|
||
Balanites aegyptiaca
|
||
Peggy Duke
|
||
Barringtonia procera
|
||
Peggy Duke
|
||
Bertholletia excelsa
|
||
After Weber^^^ (courtesy F. R. Weber and Volunteers in Technical As
|
||
Borassus flabellifer
|
||
sistance (VITA), Rosslyn, Virginia)
|
||
Brosimum alicastrum After Descourtilz'*^^
|
||
Bruguiera gymnorrhiza After Little***
|
||
Buchanania lanzan After Kirtikar and Basu*®^
|
||
After Hemsley^’* (reproduced with permission of the Director, Royal Bo
|
||
Butyrospermum paradoxum
|
||
tanic Garden, Kew)
|
||
Peggy Duke, after Lapis'***
|
||
Calamus ornatus
|
||
308 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
FIGURE CREDIT LIST (continued)
|
||
Scientific name Credit (with permission)
|
||
Canarium indicum After Kirtikar and Basu‘^^
|
||
Carya illinoensis Peggy Duke, after Sargenf*^"^
|
||
Caryocar villosum After Prance and da Silva^^ (courtesy New York Botanical Garden)
|
||
Caryodendron orinocense After PIRB^^^ and Garcia-Barriga‘°^ (courtesy Universidad Nacional, Bo
|
||
gota)
|
||
Castanea mollissima Peggy Duke in BedelP^^
|
||
Castanospermum australe Peggy Duke, after Masefield et al.,^^ courtesy Oxford University Press
|
||
Ceiba pentandra Ochse^^* (courtesy A. Asher & Co., Amsterdam)
|
||
Cocos nucifera After Little and Wadsworth'^^^ and Masefield et al.,^^ courtesy Oxford
|
||
University Press
|
||
Cola acuminata Peggy Duke
|
||
Cordeauxia eduli s Peggy Duke
|
||
Corylus americana Peggy Duke in BedelP^^
|
||
Coula edulis After Louis and Leonard'*^^ (redrawn from “ Flore du Congo Belgique et
|
||
du Ruanda-Urundi” , Bruxelles, LN.E.A.C.
|
||
Cycas rumphii After Ochse^^* (courtesy A. Asher & C o., Amsterdam)
|
||
After Reed"^^*
|
||
Cyperus esculentus
|
||
Detarium senegalensis After Weber^^^ (courtesy F. R. Weber and Volunteers in Technical As
|
||
sistance (VITA), Rosslyn, Virginia)
|
||
Elaeis guineensis Peggy Duke, after Masefield et al.,^^ courtesy Oxford University Press
|
||
Eleocharis dulcis Peggy Duke
|
||
Fagus grandifolia Peggy Duke in BedelP^^
|
||
Ginkgo biloba Peggy Duke in BedelP^^
|
||
Gnetum gnemon After Ochse^^* (courtesy A. Asher & Co., Amsterdam)
|
||
Helianthus annuus Peggy Duke
|
||
Hyphaene thebaica After Webef*^^ (courtesy F. R. Weber and Volunteers in Technical As
|
||
sistance (VITA), Rosslyn, Virginia)
|
||
Inocarpus edulis Peggy Duke
|
||
Jatropha curcas After Ochse^^® (courtesy A. Asher & Co., Amsterdam)
|
||
Jessenia bataua After PIRB^^^ (courtesy Universidad Nacional, Bogota)
|
||
Juglans nigra Peggy Duke in BedelP^^
|
||
Lecythis ollaria After Prance and Mori^^^ (courtesy New York Botanical Gardens
|
||
Licania rigida Peggy Duke
|
||
Macadamia spp. Peggy Duke, after Degener^^*
|
||
Madhuca longifolia Peggy Duke
|
||
After Little and Wadsworth'^^^
|
||
Moringa oleifera
|
||
Nelumbo nucifera Peggy Duke, after Reed'^^®
|
||
Nypa fruticans Peggy Duke
|
||
Orbignya martiana Peggy Duke
|
||
Pachira aquatica
|
||
After Garcia-Barriga*^^ (courtesy Universidad Nacional, Bogota)
|
||
Paullinia cupana
|
||
Peggy Duke
|
||
Phytelephas macrocarpa
|
||
Peggy Duke
|
||
Pinus edulis
|
||
After Little''^®
|
||
Pistacia vera Peggy Duke
|
||
Pittosporum resiniferum
|
||
After Bakker and van Steenis"^^* (courtesy Flora Malesiana)
|
||
Platonia esculenta Peggy Duke
|
||
Prunus dulcis After Kirtikar and Basu‘^^
|
||
Quercus súber Peggy Duke
|
||
Ricinodendron heudelotii After Eggerling,^^ and Flora of West Tropical Africa!^^ (reproduced with
|
||
permission of the Director, Royal Botanic Garden, Kew) (seed of R.
|
||
rautaneninii)
|
||
Santalum acuminatum Peggy Duke
|
||
Sapium se bife rum After Li and Huang'^^'^ (Flora of Taiwan, with permission)
|
||
Schleichera oleosa After Ochse^^* (courtesy A. Asher & Co., Amsterdam)
|
||
Sclerocarya caffra After Fernandes and Femandes'^^^ (reproduced with permission of the Di
|
||
rector, Royal Botanic Garden, Kew)
|
||
309
|
||
FIGURE CREDIT LIST (continued)
|
||
Credit (with permission)
|
||
Scientific name
|
||
Simmondsia chinensis Peggy Duke
|
||
After Jeffrey^^'^ (reproduced with permission of the Director, Royal Botanic
|
||
Telfairia pedata
|
||
Garden, Kew)
|
||
Peggy Duke
|
||
Terminalia calappa
|
||
After Kirtikar and Basu*^^
|
||
Trapa bispinosa
|
||
Peggy Duke
|
||
Treculia africana
|
||
Peggy Duke (after Duke^*)
|
||
Virola sebifera
|
||
|
||
311
|
||
INDEX
|
||
Cyperus rotundus, 142
|
||
Fagus sylvatica, 160
|
||
Moringa oleifera, 216
|
||
Acacetin, 164
|
||
Acanthaceae, 5— 7, see also specific species Paullinia cupana, 232
|
||
Acetic acid, 97, 158, 222 Phytelephas macrocarpa, 235
|
||
Achotillo, see Caryocar amygdaliferum Sclerocarya caffra, 270
|
||
Acids, see spiecific types Alko, 276
|
||
Acid V, 253 Allantoic acid, 23
|
||
Acid XVIII, 253 Allantoin, 23, 60
|
||
Allegany chinkapin, see Castanea pumila
|
||
Acid XX, 253
|
||
Acrocomia aculeata, see Acrocomia sclerocarpa Almendro, see Terminalia calappa
|
||
Almond, see Prunus dulcis
|
||
Acrocomia sclerocarpa, 1— 2
|
||
Acrocomia totai, 3— 4 Bengal, see Terminalia calappa
|
||
Adenine, 232 cuddapah, see Buchanania lanzan
|
||
Adhatoda vasica, 5— 7 Indian, see Terminalia calappa
|
||
Adhatodine, 6 java-, see Canarium indicum
|
||
Adji, see Cycas rumphii tropical, see Terminalia calappa
|
||
Adotodai, see Adhatoda vasica Almondette, see Buchanania lanzan
|
||
African boxwood, see Treculia africana Almond wood, see Coula edulis
|
||
African breadfruit, see Treculia africana Aluminum, 44
|
||
Amandin, 250
|
||
African oil palm, see Elaeis guineensis
|
||
American beech, see Fagus grandifolia
|
||
African walnut, see Coula edulis
|
||
Akor, see Cycas rumphii American chestnut, see Castanea dentata
|
||
Alanine American filber, see Corylus americana
|
||
Artocarpus altilis, 35 American hazelnut, see Corylus americana
|
||
Bosimum alicastrum, 51 American oil palm, see Elaeis oleifera
|
||
Cordeauxia edulis, 114 Amino acids, see also specific types
|
||
Fagus sylvatica, 160 Apios americana, 23
|
||
Simmondsia chinensis, 273 Buchanania lanzan, 58
|
||
Cordeauxia edulis, 114
|
||
Terminalia calappa, 282
|
||
Jessenia bataua, 181
|
||
Albumens, 53, 175, see also specific types
|
||
Albuminoids, 140, 154, see also specific types Moringa oleifera, 215
|
||
Albumins, see also specific types Ricinodendron rautanenii, 258
|
||
Artocarpus altilis, 35 Sapium sebiferum, 263
|
||
Cordeauxia edulis, 114 Simmondsia chinensis, 273
|
||
Terminalia calappa, 282 Terminalia calappa, 282
|
||
Treculia africana, 287 Aminobutyric acid, 16— 18, 160
|
||
Alcohols, see also specific types Amylase, 285
|
||
Amylopectin, 285
|
||
Anacardium occidentale, 20
|
||
Apios americana, 23 Amylose, 285
|
||
Borassus flabellifer, 47 Amyrin, 60, 178
|
||
Corylus avellana, 119 Anacardiaceae, 14— 15, 19— 21, 57— 58, 269— 271,
|
||
Fagus grandifolia, 158 see also specific species
|
||
Ginkgo biloba, 164 Anacardic acid, 19— 21
|
||
Madhuca longifolia, 2 1 1 Andropogon dulce, see Eleocharis dulcis
|
||
Paullinia cupana, 232 Anethole, 65
|
||
Simmondsia chinensis, 273 Anhydrides, 97, see also specific types
|
||
Aleurites f ordii, 8 — 11 Animals, see also specific types
|
||
Aleurites moluccana, 12— 13 Acrocomia totai, 3
|
||
Aleurites montana, 14— 15 Adhatoda vasica, 1
|
||
Aleurites triloba, see Aleurites moluccana Butyrospermum paradoxum, 61
|
||
Alfonsia oleifera, see Elaeis oleifera Carya illinoensis, 72
|
||
Alkaloids, see also specific types Castanospermum australe, 93
|
||
Adhatoda vasica, 5 ,6 Corylus avellana, 121
|
||
Areca catechu, 26 Elaeis guineensis, 151
|
||
Cola acuminata, 108 Fagus sylvatica, 162
|
||
Cordeauxia edulis, 114 JTelianthus annuus, 171
|
||
312 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
Lecythis minor, 199 Artocarpetin, 37
|
||
Lecythis pisonis, 203
|
||
Artocarpin, 35, 37
|
||
Nypa fruticans, 223
|
||
Artocarpus altilis, 34— 36
|
||
Pinus edulis, 237 Artocarpus communis, see Artocarpus altilis
|
||
Ricinodendron heudelotii, 257 Artocarpus heterophyllus, 37— 39
|
||
Ricinodendron rautanenii, 259 Artocarpus integra, see Artocarpus heterophyllus
|
||
Schleichera oleosa, 268 Artostenone, 37
|
||
Telfairia pedata, 280 Ascorbic acid
|
||
Treculia africana, 289 Aleurites moluccana, 13
|
||
Anisotinine, 6
|
||
Anacardium occidentale, 20
|
||
Anthocyanin, see also specific types Areca catechu, 27
|
||
Anthocyanins, 211
|
||
Artocarpus altilis, 35
|
||
Apigenin, 164
|
||
Artocarpus heterophyllus, 37
|
||
Apios americana, 22— 25 Balanites aegyptiaca, 41
|
||
Araban, 119
|
||
Bertho llé tia excelsa, 44
|
||
Arabinose, 20, 160, 215, 250 Borassus flabellifer, 47
|
||
Arachic acid, 267 Bosimum alicastrum, 50, 51
|
||
Arachidic acid Calamus rotang, 62
|
||
Carya illinoensis, 69 Cañarium ovatum, 67
|
||
Ceiba pentandra, 97 Carya illinoensis, 69
|
||
Cocos nucifera, 102
|
||
Castanea crenata, 80
|
||
Cyperus esculentus, 140 Castanea mollissima, 85
|
||
Elaeis oleiferi, 152
|
||
Cocos nucifera, 102
|
||
Helianthus annuus, 169 Cola acuminata, 107, 108
|
||
Jatropha curcas, 178 Corylus avellana, 119
|
||
Macadamia integrifolia, 207 Cyperus esculentus, 140
|
||
Platonia esculenta, 247 Cyperus rotundus, 142
|
||
Schleichera oleosa, 267 De tar ium senegalense, 145, 146
|
||
Arachidonic acid, 41 Elaeis guineensis, 148
|
||
Arachidylalcohol, 160 Eleocharis dulcis, 154
|
||
Arachinalcohol, 160 Ginkgo biloba, 164
|
||
Araginose, 211 Helianthus annuus, 169
|
||
Arbol de Nuez, see Caryodendron orinocense Inocarpus edulis, 175
|
||
Arceaceae, 1— 2, see also specific species Jug Ians regia, 194
|
||
Areaceae, 224, see also specific species Macadamia integrifolia, 207
|
||
Areca, see Areca catechu Madhuca Ion gifo lia, 2 1 1
|
||
Arecaaine, 26 Moringa oleifera, 215
|
||
Areca catechu, 26— 29 Nelumbo nucifera, 219
|
||
Arecaceae, 3—4, 26— 33, 4 7 ^ 9 , 62— 64, 100— Pachira aquatica, 229
|
||
106, 147— 153, 173— 174, 180— 183, 222—
|
||
Pistacia vera, 240
|
||
223, 225— 228, 234— 235, see also specific
|
||
Prunus dulcis, 250
|
||
species Sclerocarya caffra, 270
|
||
Areca-nut, see Areca catechu Terminalia catappa, 282
|
||
Arecolidine, 26 Trapa natans, 285
|
||
Arecoline, 26 Treculia africana, 288
|
||
Arenga pinnata, 30— 33 Ash
|
||
Arenga saccharifera, see Arenga pinnata Acrocomia totai, 3, 4
|
||
Arginine Aleurites moluccana, 13
|
||
Artocarpus altilis, 35 Anacardium occidentale, 20
|
||
Bosimum alicastrum, 51 Apios americana, 23
|
||
Butyrospermum paradoxum, 60 Areca catechu, 21
|
||
Cordeauxia edulis, 114 Arenga pinnata, 31
|
||
Fagus sylvatica, 160 Artocarpus altilis, 35
|
||
Moringa oleifera, 215 Artocarpus heterophyllus, 37
|
||
Prunus dulcis, 250 Balanites aegyptiaca, 41
|
||
Sapium sebiferum, 263 Bertholletia excelsa, 44
|
||
Sclerocarya caffra, 270 Borassus flabellifer, 47, 48
|
||
Simmondsia chinensis, 273 Bosimum alicastrum, 50, 51
|
||
Terminalia catappa, 282 Butyrospermum paradoxum, 59
|
||
Aristoclesia esculenta, see Platonia esculenta Calamus rotang, 62
|
||
Antacarpanone, 37 Cañar ium indicum, 65
|
||
313
|
||
Cañarium ovatum, 67 Anacardium occidentale, 21
|
||
Carya illinoensis, 69 Areca catechu, 29
|
||
Castanea crenata, 80 Cocos nucífera, 105— 106
|
||
Castanea dentata, 82 Corylus avellana, 122
|
||
Castanea mollissima, 85 Corylus colurna, 125
|
||
Corylus maxima, 130
|
||
Castanea sativa, 90
|
||
Ceiba pentandra, 97 Fagus sylvatica, 162
|
||
Helianthus annuus, 172
|
||
Cocos nucífera, 101, 102
|
||
Cola acuminata, 107, 108 Juglans ailanthifoda, 185
|
||
Cordeauxia edulis, 114 Juglans hindsii, 189
|
||
Corylus americana, 116 Juglans regia, 19
|
||
Corylus avellana, 119 Nelumbo nucífera, 221
|
||
Coula edulis, 131 Bacuri, see Platonia esculenta
|
||
Cyperus esculentus, 140 Bacury, see Platonia esculenta
|
||
Cy perU S rotundus, 142 Badam, see Terminada catappa
|
||
Detarium senegalense, 145 Balanites aegyptiaca, 40— 42
|
||
Eleocharis dulcís, 154 Balanitestin, 41
|
||
Fagus grandifolia, 158 Balsam, see Balanites aegyptiaca
|
||
Barcelona nut, see Corylus avellana
|
||
Ginkgo biloba, 164
|
||
G ne turn gnemon, 166 Barium, 44
|
||
Helianthus annuus, 169 Barringtonia procera, 43
|
||
Hyphaene thebaica, 174 Basak, see Adhatoda vasica
|
||
Inocarpus edulis, 175 Basseol, 60, see also Madhuca longifoda
|
||
Jatropha curcas, 178 Bats
|
||
Juglans cinerea, 186 Cañar ium indicum, 6 6
|
||
Juglans nigra, 191 Caryocar amygdadferum, 73
|
||
Juglans regia, 194 Caryocar villosum, 11
|
||
Macadamia integrifolia, 207 Ceiba pentandra, 99
|
||
Nelumbo nucífera, 219 Lecythis minor, 199
|
||
Orbignya martiana, 226 Lecythis pisonis, 203
|
||
Pachira aquatica, 229 Bayin, 93
|
||
Phytelephas macrocarpa, 234 Bayogenin, 93
|
||
Pinus edulis, 236 Beaked filbert, see Corylus cornuta
|
||
Pistacia vera, 240 Beech, see Fagus grandifolia; Fagus sylvatica
|
||
Prunus dulcis, 250 Bees
|
||
Quercus súber, 253 Aleurites f ordii, 10
|
||
Apios americana, 25
|
||
Santalum acuminatum, 260
|
||
Sclerocarya caffra, 270 Ceiba pentandra, 99
|
||
Simmondsia chinensis, 273 Cyperus esculentus, 141
|
||
Telfairia occidentalis, 276 Elaeis oleifera, 153
|
||
Telfairia pedata, 278, 279 Helianthus annuus, 171
|
||
Terminada catappa, 282 Lecythis minor, 199
|
||
Trapa natans, 285 Lecythis pisonis, 203
|
||
Treculia africana, 287, 288 Pauldnia cupana, 233
|
||
Asparagine, 23, 114, 160, 164 Sapium sebiferum, 265
|
||
Aspartic acid Terminada catappa, 283
|
||
Bosimum alicastrum, 51
|
||
Beetles, see Insects
|
||
Sap ium sebiferum, 263 Behenic acid, 135, 169, 207, 215
|
||
Sclerocarya caffra, 270 Belgium walnut, see Aleurites moluccana
|
||
Simmondsia chinensis, 273
|
||
Bengal almond, see Terminada catappa
|
||
Terminada catappa, 282 Benzaldehyde, 250, 267
|
||
Benzolive tree, see Moringa oleifera
|
||
Asteraceae, 168— 172, see also specific species
|
||
Attalea cohune, see Orbignya cohune Bergapten, 41
|
||
Bertholletia excelsa, 44— 46
|
||
Australian nut, see Macadamia integrifoda
|
||
Azaleatin, 69 Betaine
|
||
Adhatoda vasica, 6
|
||
Cola acuminata, 108
|
||
B
|
||
Cola nitida, 110
|
||
Babassu, see Orbignya martiana Fagus sylvatica, 160
|
||
Bacteria Madhuca longifoda, 211
|
||
Aleurites f ordii, 10— 11 Betel-nut palm, see Areca catechu
|
||
314 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
Betulaceae, 116— 130, see also specific species
|
||
Cyperus rotundus, 143— 144
|
||
Betulin, 119, 160, 253
|
||
Detarium senegalense, 146
|
||
Betulinic acid, 253
|
||
Elaeis guineensis, 151
|
||
Betulinol, 119 Elaeis oleifera, 153
|
||
Bilobol, 164 Eleocharis dulcis, 156
|
||
Biotic factors, see also specific types Fagus grandifolia, 159
|
||
Acrocomia sclerocarpa, 2 Fa g US Sylva tica, 161— 162
|
||
Acrocomia totai, 3 Ginkgo biloba, 165
|
||
Adhatoda vasica, 1 Gnetum gnemon, 167
|
||
Aleurites fordii, 10— 11
|
||
Helianthus annuus, 171— 172
|
||
Aleurites moluccana, 13 Hyphaene thebaica, 174
|
||
Aleurites montana, 15
|
||
Inocarpus edulis, 176
|
||
Amphicarpaea hracteata, 18
|
||
Jatropha curcas, 179
|
||
Anacardium occidentale, 21
|
||
Jessenia bataua, 182
|
||
Apios americana, 25
|
||
Juglans ailanthifolia, 185
|
||
Areca catechu, 29
|
||
Juglans cinerea, 187— 188
|
||
Arenga pianata, 33 Juglans hindsii, 189
|
||
Artocarpus altilis, 36 Juglans nigra, 193
|
||
Artocarpus heterophyllus, 38— 39 Juglans regia, 196— 197
|
||
Balanites aegyptiaca, 42 Lecythis minor, 199
|
||
Barringtonia procera, 43 Lecythis ollaria, 201
|
||
Bertholletia excelsa, 46 Lecythis pi soni s, 203
|
||
Borassus flahellifer, 49 Licania rigida, 206
|
||
Bosimum alicastrum, 52 Mac adamia inte gr ifo lia, 209
|
||
Brosimum utile, 54 Madhuca longifolia, 213
|
||
Bruguiera gymnorhiza, 56 Moringa oleifera, 217
|
||
Buchanania lanzan, 58 Nelumbo nucifera, 221
|
||
Butyrospermum paradoxum, 61 Nypa fruticans, 223
|
||
Calamus rotang, 64
|
||
Orbignya cohune, 224
|
||
Canarium indicum, 6 6 Orbignya martiana, 228
|
||
Canarium ovatum, 6 8 Fachiro aquatica, 230
|
||
Carya illinoensis, 12 Paullinia cupana, 233
|
||
Caryocar amygdaliferum, 73 Phytelephas macrocarpa, 235
|
||
Caryocar nuciferum, 74 Pinus edulis, 237
|
||
Caryocar villosum, 11 P inus quadrifolia, 239
|
||
Caryodendron orinocense, 79 Pistacia vera, 243
|
||
Castanea crenata, 81 Pittosporum resinferum, 246
|
||
Castanea dentata, 84 Platonia esculenta, 248
|
||
Castanea mollissima, 87 Prunus dulcis, 252
|
||
Castanea pumila, 89 Quercus súber, 255
|
||
Castanea sativa, 92 Ricinodendron heudelotii, 251
|
||
Castanospermum australe, 95 Ricinodendron rautanenii, 259
|
||
Ceiba pentandra, 99 Santalum acuminatum, 261
|
||
Cocos nucifera, 105— 106 Sapium sebiferum, 265
|
||
Cola acuminata, 109 Schleichera oleosa, 268
|
||
Cola nitida, 111— 112 Sclerocarya coffra, 211
|
||
Cola verticillata, 113 Simmondsia chinensis, 215
|
||
Cordeauxia edulis, 115 Telfairia occidentalis, 211
|
||
Corylus americana, 118 Telfairia pedata, 280
|
||
Corylus avellana, 121— 122 Terminano catappa, 283
|
||
Corylus chinensis, 123 Trapa notons, 286
|
||
Corylus colurna, 125 Treculia africana, 289
|
||
Corylus cornuta, 127 Virola sebifera, 291
|
||
Corylus ferox, 128 Virola surinamensis, 292
|
||
Biotin, 211
|
||
Corylus heterophylla, 129
|
||
Birds
|
||
Corylus maxima, 130
|
||
Acrocomia totai, 3
|
||
Coula edulis, 132
|
||
Corylus avellana, 121
|
||
Cycas circinalis, 134
|
||
Elaeis guineensis, 151
|
||
Cycas revoluta, 136
|
||
Cycas rumphii, 138 Helianthus annuum, 172
|
||
Cyperus esculentus, 141 Sapium sebiferum, 265
|
||
315
|
||
Schleichera oleosa, 268 Butyrospermum paradoxum, 59
|
||
Terminalia catappa, 283 Calamus rotang, 62
|
||
Black bean tree, see Castanospermum australe Canarium ovatum, 67
|
||
Black sugar palm, see Arenga pinnata Carya illinoensis, 69
|
||
Black walnut, see Juglans hindsii; Juglans nigra Castanea crenata, 80
|
||
Bombacaceae, 96— 99, 229— 230, see also specific Castanea mollissima, 85
|
||
species Castanea sativa, 90
|
||
Bomhax pentandrum, see Ceiba pentandra Ceiba pentandra, 97
|
||
Borassus aethiopum, see Borassus /labellifer Cocos nucífera, 101, 102
|
||
Borassus flabellifer, 47— 49 Cola acuminata, 107, 108
|
||
Borassus flabelliformis, see Borassus flabellifer Cordeauxia edulis, 114
|
||
Bosimum alicastrum, 50— 52 Cory lus avellana, 119
|
||
Boxwood, African, see Treculia africana Coula edulis, 131
|
||
Brab tree, see Borassus flabellifer Cyperus esculentus, 140
|
||
Cyperus rotundus, 142
|
||
Brazilian cocoa, see Paullinia cupana
|
||
Brazil nut, see Bertholletia excelsa Detarium senegalense, 145
|
||
Breadfruit, see Artocarpus altilis; Treculia africana Elaeis guineensis, 148
|
||
Breadnut, see Bosimum alicastrum Eleocharis dulcis, 154
|
||
Brevifolin carboxylic acid, 282 Ginkgo biloba, 164
|
||
Bromine, 44 Helianthus annuus, 169
|
||
Brosimum galactodendron, see Brosimum utile Hyphaene thebaica, 174
|
||
Brosimum utile, 53— 54 Juglans nigra, 191
|
||
Bruguiera conjugata, see Bruguiera gymnorhiza Juglans regia, 194
|
||
Bruguiera gymnorhiza, 55— 56 Macadamia integrifolia, 207
|
||
Buchanania lanzan, 57— 58 Madhuca longifolia, 2 1 1
|
||
Buchanania latifolia, see Buchanania lanzan Moringa oleifera, 215
|
||
Burma mangrove, see Bruguiera gymnorhiza Nelumbo nucífera, 219
|
||
Burseraceae, 65— 68, see also specific species Pistacia vera, 240, 241
|
||
Butternut, see Caryocar nuciferum; Juglans cinerea Prunus dulcis, 250
|
||
Butterseed, see Butyrospermum paradoxum Santalum acuminatum, 260
|
||
Butyric acid, 47, 267 Sclerocarya caffra, 270
|
||
Butyrospermum paradoxum, 59— 61 Telfairia occidentalis, 276
|
||
Butyrospermum parkii, see Butyrospermum Telfairia pedata, 21S
|
||
paradoxum Terminalia catappa, 282
|
||
Buxaceae, 272— 275, see also specific species Treculia africana, 287, 288
|
||
Calcium pantothenase, 258
|
||
California walnut, see Juglans hindsii
|
||
Calories
|
||
Cacay, see Caryodendron orinocense Aleurites moluccana, 13
|
||
Cadmium, 44 Areca catechu, 27
|
||
Caesalpiniaceae, 114— 115, 145— 146, see also Arenga pinnata, 31
|
||
specific species Artocarpus altilis, 34
|
||
Caffeic acid, 97, 160, 194 Artocarpus heterophyllus, 37
|
||
Caffeine, 108, 110, 113, 232 Balanites aegyptiaca, 41
|
||
Caffir marvola nut, see Sclerocarya caffra Bertholletia excelsa, 44
|
||
Borassus flabellifer, 47
|
||
Cagui, see Caryocar amygdaliferum
|
||
Calamus rotang, 62— 64 Bosimum alicastrum, 50, 51
|
||
Calcium Butyrospermum paradoxum, 59
|
||
Acrocomia total, 3, 4 Calamus rotang, 62
|
||
Aleurites moluccana, 13 Canarium ovatum, 67
|
||
Amphicarpaea bracteata, 17 Carya illinoensis, 69
|
||
Anacardium occidentale, 20 Castanea crenata, 80
|
||
Areca catechu, 27 Castanea mollissima, 85
|
||
Arenga pinnata, 31 Castanea sativa, 90
|
||
Artocarpus altilis, 35 Ceiba pentandra, 97
|
||
Artocarpus heterophyllus, 37 Cocos nucífera, 101
|
||
Balanites aegyptiaca, 41 Cola acuminata, 107, 108
|
||
Bertholletia excelsa, 44 Cordeauxia edulis, 114
|
||
Borassus flabellifer, 47 Corylus americana, 116
|
||
Bosimum alicastrum, 50, 51 Corylus avellana, 119
|
||
Buchanania lanzan, 58 Coula edulis, 131
|
||
316 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
Cyperus esculentus, 140 Canarium ovatum, 67
|
||
Cyperus rotundus, 142 Carya illinoensis, 69
|
||
Detarium senegalense, 145 Castanea crenata, 80
|
||
Elaeis guineensis, 148
|
||
Castanea dentata, 82
|
||
Eleocharis dulcís, 154
|
||
Castanea mollissima, 85
|
||
Fagus grandifolia, 158
|
||
Castanea sativa, 90
|
||
Ginkgo biloba, 164
|
||
Ceiba pentandra, 97
|
||
Helianthus annuus, 169
|
||
Cocos nucífera, 101, 102
|
||
Hyphaene thebaica, 174 Cola acuminata, 107, 108
|
||
Inocarpus edulis, 175 Cordeauxia edulis, 114
|
||
Juglans cinerea, 186 Corylus americana, 116
|
||
Jug Ians nigra, 191 Corylus avellana, 119
|
||
Juglans regia, 194 Coula edulis, 131
|
||
Macadamia integrifolia, 207 Cyperus esculentus, 140
|
||
Nelumbo nucífera, 219 Cyperus rotundus, 142
|
||
Pachira aquatica, 229 Detarium senegalense, 145
|
||
Pinus edulis, 236
|
||
Elaeis guineensis, 148
|
||
Pistacia vera, 240, 241
|
||
Eleocharis dulcís, 154
|
||
Prunus dulcís, 250
|
||
Fagus grandifolia, 158
|
||
Ricinodendron rautanenii, 258
|
||
Ginkgo biloba, 164
|
||
Sclerocarya caffra, 270 Gnetum gnemon, 166
|
||
Telfairia occidentalis, 276 Helianthus annuus, 169
|
||
Terminaba catappa, 282 Hyphaene thebaica, 174
|
||
Trapa natans, 285 Inocarpus edulis, 175
|
||
Treculia africana, 287 Jatropha curcas, 178
|
||
Caltrops, see Trapa natans Juglans cinerea, 186
|
||
Campesterol, 178 Juglans nigra, 191
|
||
Camphorol, 35, 97 Juglans regia, 194
|
||
Canarium amboinense, see Canarium indicum
|
||
Macadamia integrifolia, 207
|
||
Canarium commune, see Canarium indicum Madhuca longifolia, 211
|
||
Canarium grandistipulatum, see Canarium indicum
|
||
Moringa oleifera, 215
|
||
Canarium indicum, 65— 66
|
||
Nelumbo nucífera, 219
|
||
Canarium mehenbethene, see Canarium indicum
|
||
Nypa fruticans, 222
|
||
Canarium moluccanum, see Canarium indicum Orbignya martiana, 226
|
||
Canarium nungi, see Canarium indicum Pachira aquatica, 229
|
||
Canarium ovatum, 67— 68 Phytelephas macrocarpa, 234
|
||
Canarium polyphyllum, see Canarium indicum Pinus edulis, 236
|
||
Canarium shortlandicum, see Canarium indicum Pistacia vera, 240, 241
|
||
Canarium subtruncatum, see Canarium indicum Prunus dulcís, 250
|
||
Candleberry, see Aleurites moluccana Santalum acuminatum, 260
|
||
Candlenut oil tree, see Aleurites moluccana Schleichera oleosa, 267
|
||
Canes, see Calamus rotang Sclerocarya caffra, 270
|
||
Caoutchouc, 37, 212 Simmondsia chinensis, 273
|
||
Capomo, see Bosimum alicastrum Telfairia occidentalis, 276
|
||
Capric acid, 69, 102, 263, 292 Terminaba catappa, 282
|
||
Caproic acid, 102 Trapa natans, 285
|
||
Caprylic acid, 102, 164, 263 Trecuba africana, 287, 288
|
||
Carbohydrates, see also specific types Cardol, 20
|
||
Aleurites moluccana, 13 Carotene
|
||
Anacardium occidentale, 20 Acr acomia scier ocarpa, 1
|
||
Apios americana, 23 Aleurites moluccana, 13
|
||
Areca catechu, 26, 27
|
||
Anacardium occidentale, 20
|
||
Arenga pinnata, 31 Artocarpus altilis, 35
|
||
Artocarpus altilis, 35
|
||
Artocarpus heterophyllus, 37
|
||
Artocarpus heterophyllus, 37 Balanites aegyptiaca, 41
|
||
Balanites aegyptiaca, 41
|
||
Bertholletia excelsa, 44
|
||
Bertholletia excelsa, 44
|
||
Bosimum alicastrum, 50, 51
|
||
Borassus flabellifer, 47, 48
|
||
Canarium ovatum, 67
|
||
Bosimum alicastrum, 50, 51
|
||
Carya illinoensis, 69
|
||
Butyrospermum paradoxum, 59
|
||
Castanea mollissima, 85
|
||
Calamus rotang, 62 Cocos nucífera, 101, 102
|
||
317
|
||
Corylus avellana, 119
|
||
Cola acuminata, 107, 108
|
||
Corylus avellana, 119 Orbignya martiana, 225
|
||
Elaeis guineensis, 148 Quercus súber, 253
|
||
Eleocharis dulcís, 154 Cerin, 253
|
||
Helianthus annuus, 169 Cerium, 44
|
||
Juglans regia, 194 Ceroids, 253, see also specific types
|
||
Macadamia inte gr if olia, 207 Cerotic acid, 35, 37
|
||
Madhuca longifolia, 2 1 1 Cerotonic acid, 160
|
||
Moringa oleifera, 215 Ceryl alcohol, 164
|
||
Cesium, 44
|
||
Nelumbo nucífera, 219
|
||
Ceylon oak, see Schleichera oleosa
|
||
Pachila aquatica, 229
|
||
Pistacia vera, 240 Chalmagra, see Caryocar amygdaliferum
|
||
Prunus dulcís, 250 Charcoal, 97
|
||
Treculia africana, 288 Chemicals, see specific types
|
||
Carpathian walnut, see Juglans regia Cheronjee, see Buchanania lanzan
|
||
Carumhium sehiferum, see Sapium sehiferum Chestnut
|
||
Carya illinoensis, 69— 71 American, see Castanea dentata
|
||
Carya oliviformis, see Carya illinoensis Chinese hairy, see Castanea mollissima
|
||
Carya pecan, see Carya illinoensis Chinese water, see Eleocharis dulcís
|
||
European, see Castanea sativa
|
||
Caryatin, 69
|
||
Italian, see Castanea sativa
|
||
Caryocaraceae, 73— 77, see also specific species
|
||
Cary ocar amygdaliferum, 73 Japanese, see Castanea crenata
|
||
Caryocar brasiliense, see Caryocar villosum Malabar, see Pachira aquatica
|
||
Caryocar coriaceum, see Caryocar villosum Moretón Bay, see Castanospermum australe
|
||
Caryocar nuciferum, 74 Otaheite, see I nocarpus edulis
|
||
Caryocar villosum, 75— 77 Polynesia, see Inocarpus edulis
|
||
Caryodendron orinocense, 78— 79 Spanish, see Castanea sativa
|
||
Caryopitys edulis, see Pinus edulis sweet, see Castanea dentata; Castanea sativa
|
||
Cashew, see Anacardium occidentale Tahiti, see Inocarpus edulis
|
||
water, see Eleocharis dulcís; Trapa natans
|
||
Castañas, see Bertholletia excelsa
|
||
Castanea americana, see Castanea dentata Chinese filbert, see Corylus chinensis
|
||
Castanea bungeana, see Castanea mollissima Chinese hairy chestnut, see Castanea mollissima
|
||
Castanea castanea, see Castanea sativa Chinese tallow tree, see Sapium sebiferum
|
||
Castanea crenata, 80— 81 Chinese water chestnut, see Eleocharis dulcís
|
||
Castanea dentata, 82— 84 Chinkapin, Allegany, see Castanea pumila
|
||
Castanea formosana, see Castanea mollissima Chinquapin, see Castanea pumila
|
||
Chirauli nut, see Buchanania lanzan
|
||
Castanea japónica, see Castanea crenata
|
||
Castanea mollissima, 85— 87 Chironjii, see Buchanania lanzan
|
||
Castanea pubinervis, see Castanea crenata Chlorine, 194
|
||
Castanea pumila, 88— 89 Chloroform, 191
|
||
Castanea sativa, 90— 92, see also Castanea Chlorogenic acid, 160
|
||
mollissima Choline, 102, 160, 232
|
||
Castanea stricta, see Castanea crenata Chromium, 250, 288
|
||
Castanea vesca, see Castanea sativa Chufa, see Cyperus esculentus
|
||
Castanea vulgaris, see Castanea sativa Cica, see Cycas circinalis
|
||
Castanhado para, see Bertholletia excelsa Cineole, 142
|
||
Castanospermum australe, 93— 95 Cistine, 263
|
||
Catechin Citric acid, 160, 270
|
||
Anacardium occidentale, 20 Clusiaceae, 247— 248, see also specific species
|
||
Carya illinoensis, 69 Cnarotee, 164
|
||
Cola acuminata, 108 Cobalt, 44, 194
|
||
Cola nitida, 110 Cobnut, see Corylus avellana
|
||
Cocoa, Brazilian, see Paullinia cupana
|
||
Nelumbo nucífera, 219
|
||
Coco de Catarro, see Acrocomia sclerocarpa
|
||
Paullinia cupana, 232
|
||
Terminaba catappa, 282 Coco de mono, see Lecythis minor
|
||
Coconut, see Borassus flabellifer; Cocos nucífera
|
||
Catechutannic acid, 232
|
||
Coco-palm, see Acrocomia total
|
||
Ceiba pentandra, 96— 99
|
||
Cocos nucífera, 100— 106
|
||
Cellulose
|
||
Cohune palm, see Orbignya cohune
|
||
Ceiba pentandra, 97
|
||
Cola, see Cola acuminata; Cola verticillata
|
||
Cola acuminata, 108
|
||
Cola nitida, 110 Cola acuminata, 107— 109
|
||
318 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
Cola johnsonii, see Cola verticillata Bertholletia excelsa, 45
|
||
Colalipase, 110 Borassus flabellifer, 48
|
||
Cola nitida, 110— 112 Bosimum alicastrum, 51
|
||
Colaoxydase, 110 Brosimum utile, 53
|
||
Cola verticillata, 113 Bruguiera gymnorhiza, 56
|
||
Combretaceae, 281— 283, see also specific species Buchanania lanzan, 58
|
||
Concavalin A, 37
|
||
Butyrospermum paradoxum, 60
|
||
Constantinople nut, see Corylus colurna
|
||
Calamus rotang, 63
|
||
Copper
|
||
Canarium indicum, 6 6
|
||
Amphicarpaea hracteata, 17 Canarium ovatum, 67
|
||
Bertholletia excelsa, 44 Carya illinoensis, 70— 71
|
||
Madhuca longifolia, 2 1 1 Caryocar amygdaliferum, 73
|
||
Moringa oleifera, 215 Caryocar nuciferum, 74
|
||
Pistacia vera, 241 Caryocar villosum, 11
|
||
Santalum acuminatum, 260 Caryodendron orinocense, 78
|
||
Trapa natans, 285 Castanea crenata, 80— 81
|
||
Treculia africana, 288
|
||
Castanea dentata, 83
|
||
Cordeauxia edulis, 114— 115
|
||
Castanea mollissima, 8 6 , 87
|
||
Cordeauxione, 114 Castanea pumila, 89
|
||
Corilagin, 282 Castanea sativa, 91— 92
|
||
Cork oak, see Quercus súber Castanospermum australe, 94
|
||
Corozo, see Elaeis oleifera Ceiba pentandra, 98
|
||
Corozo oleifera, see Elaeis oleifera Cocos nucífera, 103— 104
|
||
Corylin, 119 Cola acuminata, 109
|
||
Corylus americana, 116— 118
|
||
Cola nitida, 111
|
||
Corylus avellana, 119— 122 Cola verticillata, 113
|
||
Corylus chinensis, 123
|
||
Cordeauxia edulis, 115
|
||
Corylus colurna, 124— 125, see also Corylus Corylus americana, 117
|
||
chinensis Corylus avellana, 120— 121
|
||
Corylus cornuta, 126— 127 Corylus chinensis, 123
|
||
Corylus ferox, 128, see also Corylus ferox Corylus colurna, 124— 125
|
||
Corylus heterophylla, 129 Corylus cornuta, 126— 127
|
||
Corylus maxima, 130 Corylus ferox, 128
|
||
Corylus rostrata, see Corylus cornuta Corylus heterophylla, 129
|
||
Corylus tihetica, see Corylus ferox
|
||
Corylus maxima, 130
|
||
Corylus tubulosa, see Corylus maxima
|
||
Coula edulis, 132
|
||
Coula edulis, 131— 132 Cycas circinalis, 134
|
||
/7-Coumaric acid, 160, 194 Cycas revoluta, 135
|
||
Cow tree, see Brosimum utile Cycas rumphii, 138
|
||
Creme nut, see Bertholletia excelsa Cyperus esculentus, 141
|
||
Croton moluccanus, see Aleurites moluccana Cyperus rotundas, 143
|
||
Croton sebiferus, see Sapium sebiferum Detarium senegalense, 146
|
||
Crozier cycas, see Cycas circinalis Elaeis guineensis, 149— 150
|
||
Cucurbitaceae, 276— 280, see also specific species Elaeis oleifera, 153
|
||
Cuddapah almond, see Buchanania lanzan Eleocharis dulcis, 155
|
||
Cultivation Fagus grandifolia, 159
|
||
Acrocomia sclerocarpa, 2 Fagus sylvatica, 161
|
||
Acrocomia total, 3 Ginkgo biloba, 165
|
||
Adhatoda vasica, 6 — 7 Gnetum gnemon, 167
|
||
Aleurites f ordii, 9— 10
|
||
Helianthus annuus, 170
|
||
Aleurites moluccana, 13 Hyphaene thebaica, 174
|
||
Aleurites montana, 14— 15 I nocarpus edulis, 176
|
||
Amphicarpaea bracteata, 18 Jatropha curcas, 179
|
||
Anacardium occidentale, 20— 21 Jessenia bataua, 182
|
||
Apios americana, 24
|
||
Juglans ailantbifolia, 185
|
||
Areca catechu, 28 Juglans cinerea, 187
|
||
Arenga pinnata, 31— 32
|
||
Juglans hindsii, 189
|
||
Artocarpus altilis, 36
|
||
Juglans nigra, 192
|
||
Artocarpus heterophyllus, 38
|
||
Juglans regia, 195— 196
|
||
Balanites aegyptiaca, 42
|
||
Lecythis minor, 199
|
||
Barringtonia procera, 43
|
||
Lecythis ollaria, 2 0 1
|
||
319
|
||
Lecythis pisonis, 203 Bosimum alicastrum, 51
|
||
Butyrospermum paradoxum, 60
|
||
Licania rigida, 205
|
||
Fagus sylvatica, 160
|
||
Macadamia integrifolia, 208— 209
|
||
Prunus dulcis, 250
|
||
Madhuca longifolia, 212
|
||
Moringa oleifera, 216 Ricinodendron rautanenii, 258
|
||
Nelumbo nucífera, 220 Simmondsia chinensis, 273
|
||
Nypa fruticans, 223 Terminaba catappa, 282
|
||
Orhignya cohune, 224 Cytotoxic acid, 219
|
||
Orhignya martiana, 221
|
||
Pachira aquatica, 230
|
||
D
|
||
Paullinia cupana, 233
|
||
Phytelephas macrocarpa, 235 Date, desert, see Balanites aegyptiaca
|
||
Decadienoic acid, 263
|
||
Pinus edulis, 237
|
||
Decanoic acid, 292
|
||
Pinus quadrifolia, 238
|
||
Pistacia vera, 242 Deoxyribonucleic acid, 164
|
||
Pittosporum resinferum, 245 Deoxyvasicine, 6
|
||
Platonia esculenta, 248 Desert date, see Balanites aegyptiaca
|
||
Prunus dulcís, 251 Detaric acid, 145
|
||
Quercus súber, 254 Detarium heudelotianum, see Detarium senegalense
|
||
Ricinodendron heudelotii, 257 Detarium senegalense, 145— 146
|
||
Ricinodendron rautanenii, 259 Dextrin, 51
|
||
Dextrose, 285
|
||
Santalum acuminatum, 261
|
||
Sapium sebiferum, 264 Diapalmitostearin, 148
|
||
Dihydroterpene, 244
|
||
Schleichera oleosa, 267— 268
|
||
Sclerocarya cajfra, 271 3,4-Dihydroxy benzoic acid, 69
|
||
Dimethyltryptamine, 290
|
||
Simmondsia chinensis, 274
|
||
Telfairia occidentalis, 211 Dioleopalmitin, 58
|
||
Telfairia pedata, 279— 280 Diosgenin, 41
|
||
Terminaba catappa, 283 Dipalmitolein, 58
|
||
Trapa natans, 286 Dipalmitostearins, 2 11
|
||
Treculia africana, 289 Diseases, see also specific types
|
||
Virola sebifera, 291 Acrocomia total, 3
|
||
Virola surinamensis, 292 Aleurites f ordii, 10— 11
|
||
Curcasin, 178 Amphicarpaea bracteata, 18
|
||
Anacardium occidentale, 21
|
||
Curcin, 178
|
||
Cyanadin, 194 Apios americana, 25
|
||
Cyanomachurin, 37 Areca catechu, 29
|
||
Cyanomaclurin, 37 Arenga pinnata, 33
|
||
Cyasin, 135 Borassus flabelbfer, 49
|
||
Cycadaceae, 133— 138, see also specific species Brosimum utile, 54
|
||
Cycad nut, see Cycas circinalis; Cycas revoluta Cañarium ovatum, 6 8
|
||
Cycas, see Cycas circinalis Carya ilbnoensis, 12
|
||
Caryocar amygdaliferum, 73
|
||
Cycas circinalis, 133— 134
|
||
Castanea dentata, 84
|
||
Cycasin, 135
|
||
Cycas revoluta, 135— 136 Castanea mollissima, 87
|
||
Cycas rumphii, 137— 138 Castanea pumila, 89
|
||
Cyclitol, 253 Castanea sativa, 92
|
||
Cycloartocarpin 37 Cocos nucífera, 106
|
||
Cyclopropenoid acids, 229 Corylus americana, 118
|
||
Cyperaceae, 139— 144, 154— 156, see also specific Corylus avellana, 122
|
||
aspects; specific species Corylus chinensis, 123
|
||
Cyperene-1, 142 Cyperus rotundus, 143— 144
|
||
Cyperene-2, 142 Elaeis guineensis, 151
|
||
Cyperenone, 142 Elaeis oleifera, 153
|
||
Cyperone, 142 Fagus grandifoba, 159
|
||
Cyperus esculentus, 139— 141 Fagus sylvatica, 161— 162
|
||
Cyperus rotundus, 142— 144 Ginkgo biloba, 165
|
||
Cystathionine, 200 Helianthus annuus, 172
|
||
Cysteine, 114, 273 Jatropha curcas, 179
|
||
Cystine Juglans ailanthifolia, 185
|
||
Artocarpus altilis, 35 Juglans cinerea, 187— 188
|
||
320 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
Juglans hindsii, 189
|
||
Castanea mollissima, 8 6
|
||
Juglans nigra, 193 Castanea pumi la, 89
|
||
Lecythis ollaria, 201
|
||
Castanea sativa, 91
|
||
Macadamia integrifolia, 209
|
||
Castanospermum australe, 94
|
||
Madhuca longifolia, 213
|
||
Ceiba pentandra, 98
|
||
Moringa oleifera, 217
|
||
Cocos nucífera, 102— 103
|
||
Nelumbo nucífera, 221
|
||
Cola acuminata, 109
|
||
Orhignya cohune, 224
|
||
Cola nitida, 1 10
|
||
Paullinia cupana, 233 Cola verticillata, 113
|
||
Pinus edulis, 237 Cordeauxia edulis, 115
|
||
Pistacia vera, 243 Corylus americana, 117
|
||
Platonia esculenta, 248
|
||
Corylus avellana, 120
|
||
Prunus du le is, 252
|
||
Corylus chinensis, 123
|
||
Quercus suher, 255
|
||
Corylus colurna, 124
|
||
Ricinodendron heudelotii, 257
|
||
Corylus cornuta, 126
|
||
Schleicher a oleosa, 268
|
||
Corylus ferox, 128
|
||
Sclerocarya caffra, 271
|
||
Corylus heterophylla, 129
|
||
Simmondsia chinensis, 275 Corylus maxima, 130
|
||
Telfairia occidentalis, 211
|
||
Coula edulis, 132
|
||
Telfairia pedata, 280
|
||
Cycas circinalis, 134
|
||
Trapa natans, 286 Cycas revoluta, 135
|
||
Distribution, see Geographical distribution Cycas rumphii, 138
|
||
Docosanol, 160 Cyp e rus esculentus, 140— 141
|
||
Doum palm, see Hyphaene thebaica Cyperus rotundus, 143
|
||
Drumstick tree, see Moringa oleifera Detarium senegalense, 146
|
||
Elaeis guineensis, 149
|
||
Elaeis oleifera, 152— 153
|
||
Eleocharis dulcís, 155
|
||
Eastern black walnut, see Juglans nigra
|
||
Fagus grandifolia, 158— 159
|
||
Ecology
|
||
Fagus sylvatica, 161
|
||
Acrocomia scleracarpa, 1— 2
|
||
Ginkgo biloba, 164— 165
|
||
Acrocomia total, 3
|
||
Gnetum gnemon, 167
|
||
Adhatoda vasica, 6
|
||
Helianthus annuus, 170
|
||
Ale uri tes fardi i, 8 — 9
|
||
Hyphaene thebaica, 174
|
||
Aleurites moluccana, 13 I nocarpus edulis, 176
|
||
Aleurites montana, 14
|
||
Jatropha curcas, 178— 179
|
||
Amphicarpaea bracteata, 17— 18 Jesse nia bataua, 181
|
||
Apios americana, 24 Juglans allant bifolia, 184, 185
|
||
Areca catechu, 21 Juglans cinerea, 187
|
||
Arenga pinnata, 31 Juglans hindsii, 189
|
||
Artocarpus altilis, 35— 36 Juglans nigra, 191
|
||
Artocarpus heterophyllus, 38 Juglans regia, 195
|
||
Balanites aegyptiaca, 41 Lecythis minor, 199
|
||
Barringtonia procera, 43 Lecythis ollaria, 201
|
||
Bertholletia excelsa, 45 Lecythis pisonis, 203
|
||
Borassus flabellifer, 48 Licania rigida, 205
|
||
Bosimum alicastrum, 51 Macadamia integrifolia, 208
|
||
Brosimum utile, 53 Madhuca longifolia, 212
|
||
Bruguiera gymnorhiza, 56 Moringa oleifera, 216
|
||
Buchanania lanzan, 58 Nelumbo nucífera, 220
|
||
Butyrospermum paradoxum, 60 Nypa fruticans, 223
|
||
Calamus rotang, 63
|
||
Orbignya cohune, 224
|
||
Canarium indicum, 6 6
|
||
Orbignya martiana, 227
|
||
Cañarium ovatum, 67
|
||
Pachira aquatica, 230
|
||
Carya illinoensis, 70
|
||
Paullinia cupana, 232— 233
|
||
Caryocar amygdaliferum, 73
|
||
Phytelephas macrocarpa, 235
|
||
Caryocar nuciferum, 74
|
||
Pinus edulis, 237
|
||
Caryocar villosum, 11
|
||
Pinus quadrifolia, 238
|
||
Caryodendron orinocense, 78
|
||
Pistacia vera, 241— 242
|
||
Castanea crenata, 80
|
||
Pittosporum resinferum, 245
|
||
Castanea dentata, 83
|
||
Platonia esculenta, 248
|
||
321
|
||
Prunas dulcís, 250— 251
|
||
Corylus colurna, 125
|
||
Quercus súber, 254
|
||
Corylus cornuta, 127
|
||
Ricinodendron heudelotii, 257 Corylus ferox, 128
|
||
Ricinodendron rautanenii, 258 Corylus heterophylia, 129
|
||
Santalum acuminatum, 261 Corylus maxima, 130
|
||
Sapium sebiferum, 263 Coula edulis, 132
|
||
Sclerocarya caffra, 271 Cycas circinalis, 134
|
||
Simmondsia chinensis, 21A Cycas revoluta, 136
|
||
Telfairia occidentalis, 276— 277 Cycas rumphii, 138
|
||
Telfairia pedata, 279
|
||
Cyperus esculentus, 141
|
||
Terminaba catappa, 283
|
||
Cyperus rotundas, 143
|
||
Trapa natans, 285— 286
|
||
Detarium senegalense, 146
|
||
Treculia africana, 289
|
||
Elaeis guineensis, 150
|
||
Virola sebifera, 291
|
||
Elaeis oleifera, 153
|
||
Virola surinamensis, 292
|
||
Eleocharis dulcís, 155
|
||
Economics Fagus grandifolia, 159
|
||
Acrocomia sclerocarpa, 2 Fagus sylvatica, 161
|
||
Acrocomia totai, 3 Ginkgo biloba, 165
|
||
Adhatoda vasica, 1 Gnetum gnemon, 167
|
||
Aleurites fordii, 10 Helianthus annuus, 170— 171
|
||
Aleurites moluccana, 13 Hyphaene thebaica, 174
|
||
Aleurites montana, 15 1 nocarpus edulis, 176
|
||
Amphicarpaea bracteata, 18 Jatropha curcas, 179
|
||
Anacardium occidentale, 21 Jessenia bataua, 182
|
||
Apios americana, 25 Juglans ailanthifolia, 185
|
||
Areca catechu, 28— 29 Juglans cinerea, 187
|
||
Arenga pinnata, 32
|
||
Juglans hindsii, 189
|
||
Artocarpus altilis, 36
|
||
Juglans nigra, 192— 193
|
||
Artocarpus heterophyllus, 38 Juglans regia, 196
|
||
Balanites aegyptiaca, 42 Lecythis minor, 199
|
||
Barringtonia procera, 43 Lecythis ollaria, 201
|
||
Bertholletia excelsa, 45 Lecythis pisonis, 203
|
||
Borassus flabellifer, 49 Licania rigida, 206
|
||
Bosimum alicastrum, 52 Macadamia integrifolia, 209
|
||
Brosimum utile, 54 Madhuca longifolia, 213
|
||
Bruguiera gymnorhiza, 56 Moringa oleifera, 216
|
||
Buchanania lanzan, 58 Nelumbo nucífera, 221
|
||
Butyrospermum paradoxum, 61 Nypa fruticans, 223
|
||
Calamus rotang, 63— 64 Orbignya cohune, 224
|
||
Canarium indicum, 6 6 Orbignya martiana, 227
|
||
Canarium ovatum, 6 8 P achira aquatica, 230
|
||
Carya illinoensis, 1 1
|
||
Paullinia cupana, 233
|
||
Caryocar amygdaliferum, 73
|
||
Phytelephas macrocarpa, 235
|
||
Caryocar nuciferum, 74 Pinus edulis, 237
|
||
Caryocar villosum, 77
|
||
Pinus quadrifolia, 238
|
||
Caryodendron orinocense, 79 Pistacia vera, 242
|
||
Castanea crenata, 81
|
||
Pittosporum resinferum, 245
|
||
Castanea dentata, 84 Platonia esculenta, 248
|
||
Castanea mollissima, 87 Prunus dulcís, 251
|
||
Castanea pumila, 89 Quercus súber, 255
|
||
Castanea sativa, 92 Ricinodendron heudelotii, 257
|
||
Castanospermum australe, 94— 95 Ricinodendron rautanenii, 259
|
||
Ceiba pentandra, 99 Santalum acuminatum, 261
|
||
Cocos nucífera, 105 Sapium sebiferum, 264
|
||
Cola acuminata, 109 Schleichera oleosa, 268
|
||
Cola nitida, 111 Sclerocarya cajfra, 271
|
||
Cola verticillata, 113 Simmondsia chinensis, 21A— 275
|
||
Cordeauxia edulis, 115 Telfairia occidentalis, 211
|
||
Corylus americana, 118 Telfairia pedata, 280
|
||
Corylus avellana, 121 Terminaba catappa, 283
|
||
Corylus chinensis, 123 Trapa natans, 286
|
||
322 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
Treculia africana, 289 Cola verticillata, 113
|
||
Virola schiferà, 291 Cordeauxia edulis, \\5
|
||
Virola surinamensis, 292 Corylus americana, 118
|
||
Eicosenoic acid, 169 207 Corylus avellana, 121
|
||
/z-Eicosylalcohol, 160 Corylus chinensis, 123
|
||
Elaeis guineensis, 147— 151 Corylus colurna, 125
|
||
Elaeis melanococca, see Elaeis guineensis; Elaeis Corylus cornuta, 127
|
||
oleifera Corylus ferox, 128
|
||
Elaeis oleifera, 152— 153 Corylus heterophylla, 129
|
||
Eleocharis dulcís, 154— 156 Corylus maxima, 130
|
||
Eleocharis plantaginea, see Eleocharis dulcis
|
||
Coula edulis, 132
|
||
Eleocharis tuberosa, see Eleocharis dulcis
|
||
Cycas circinalis, 134
|
||
Eleostearic acid
|
||
Cycas revoluta, 136
|
||
Aleurites fordii, 8 Cycas rumphii, 138
|
||
Aleurites montana, 14 Cyperus esculentus, 141
|
||
Licania rigida, 204 Cyperus rotundus, 143
|
||
Ricinodendron heudelotii, 257 Detarium senegalense, 146
|
||
Ricinodendron rautanenii, 258 Elaeis guineensis, 150— 151
|
||
Telfairia occidentalis, 276 Elaeis oleifera, 153
|
||
Ellagic acid, 263, 282 Eleocharis dulcis, 155— 156
|
||
Energy Fagus grandifolia, 159
|
||
Acrocomia sclerocarpa, 2 Fagus sylvatica, 161
|
||
Acrocomia totai, 3 Ginkgo biloba, 165
|
||
Adhatoda vasica, 1 Gnetum gnemon, 167
|
||
Aleurites fordii, 10 Helianthus annuus, 171
|
||
Aleurites moluccana, 13 Hyphaene thebaica, 174
|
||
Aleurites montana, 15
|
||
Inocarpus edulis, 176
|
||
Amphicarpaea hracteata, 18 Jatropha curcas, 179
|
||
Anacardium occidentale, 21 Jessenia hataua, 182
|
||
Apios americana, 25 Juglans ailantbifolia, 185
|
||
Areca catechu, 29 Juglans cinerea, 187
|
||
Arenga pinnata, 33 Juglans hindsii, 189
|
||
Artocarpus altilis, 36 Juglans nigra, 193
|
||
Artocarpus heterophyllus, 38 Juglans regia, 196
|
||
Balanites aegyptiaca, 42 Lecythis minor, 199
|
||
Barringtonia procera, 43 Lecythis ollaria, 201
|
||
Bertholletia excelsa, 46 Lecythis pisonis, 203
|
||
Borassus flabellifer, 49 Licania rigida, 206
|
||
Bosimum alicastrum, 52 Macadamia integrifolia, 209
|
||
Brosimum utile, 54 Madhuca longifolia, 213
|
||
Bruguiera gymnorhiza, 56 Moringa oleifera, 216— 217
|
||
Buchanania lanzan, 58 Nelumbo nucifera, 221
|
||
Butyrospermum paradoxum, 61 Nypa fruticans, 223
|
||
Calamus rotang, 64 Orbignya cohune, 224
|
||
Cañarium indicum, 6 6 Orbignya martiana, 221— 228
|
||
Canarium ovatum, 6 8 Pachira aquatica, 230
|
||
Carya illinoensis, 71— 72 Paullinia cupana, 233
|
||
Caryocar amygdaliferum, 73 Phytelephas macrocarpa, 235
|
||
Caryocar nuciferum, 74 Pinus edulis, 237
|
||
Caryocar villo sum, 11 Pinus quadrifolia, 239
|
||
Caryodendron orinocense, 79 Pistacia vera, 242— 243
|
||
Castanea crenata, 81 Pittosporum resinferum, 245— 246
|
||
Castanea dentata, 84 Platonia esculenta, 248
|
||
Castanea mollissima, 87 Prunus dulcis, 252
|
||
Castanea pumila, 89 Quercus súber, 255
|
||
Castanea sativa, 92
|
||
Ricinodendron heudelotii, 257
|
||
Castanospermum australe, 95
|
||
Ricinodendron rautanenii, 259
|
||
Ceiba pentandra, 99 Santalum acuminatum, 261
|
||
Cocos nucifera, 105 Sapium sebiferum, 264— 265
|
||
Cola acuminata, 109
|
||
Schleichera oleosa, 268
|
||
Cola nitida, 111
|
||
Sclerocarya coffra, 21 ì
|
||
323
|
||
Simmondsia chinensis, 275 Cordeauxia edulis, 114
|
||
Telfairia occidentalis, 211 Corylus americana, 116
|
||
Telfairia pedata, 280 Corylus avellana, 119
|
||
Terminalia catappa, 283 Coula edulis, 131
|
||
Trapa natans, 286 Cycas revoluta, 135
|
||
Treculia africana, 289 Cyperus esculentus, 140
|
||
Virola schiferà, 291
|
||
Cyperus rotundas, 142
|
||
Virola surinamensis, 292
|
||
Detarium senegalense, 145
|
||
English petroleum nut, see Pittosporum resinferum Elaeis guineensis, 148
|
||
English walnut, see Juglans regia Eleocharis dulcis, 154
|
||
Enzymes, see specific types Fagus grandifolia, 158
|
||
Epicatechin, 20, 108, 110, 282 Ginkgo biloba, 164
|
||
Epimoretenol, 263 Gnetum gnemon, 166
|
||
Eriodendron anfractuosum, see Ceiba pentandra Helianthus annuus, 169
|
||
Essang nut, see Ricinodendron heudelotii Hyphaene thebaica, 174
|
||
Estrogens, 215, see also specific types Inocarpus edulis, 175
|
||
Ethyl cinamate, 211 Jatropha curcas, 178
|
||
Euorpean beech, see Fagus sylvatica
|
||
Juglans cinerea, 186
|
||
Euphorbiaceae, 8— 13, 78— 79, 177— 179, 256— Juglans nigra, 191
|
||
259, 262— 265, see also specific species Juglans regia, 194
|
||
European chestnut, see Castanea sat iva Lecythis pisonis, 202
|
||
European filbert, see Corylus avellana Li cania rigida, 204
|
||
Excoecaria schiferà, see Sapium sehiferum Madhuca longifolia, 2 1 1
|
||
Moringa oleifera, 215
|
||
Nelumbo nucífera, 219
|
||
Orhignya cohune, 224
|
||
Fabaceae, 16— 17, 21— 25, 93— 95, 175— 176, see Orhignya martiana, 225
|
||
also specific species P achira aquatica, 229
|
||
Fagaceae, 80— 92, 157— 162, 253— 255, see also Phytelephas macrocarpa, 234
|
||
specific species Pinus edulis, 236
|
||
Fagine, 160 Pistacia vera, 240, 241
|
||
Fagus americana, see Fagus grandifolia Platonia esculenta, 248
|
||
Fagus atropurpuea, see Fagus grandifolia Prunus dulcis, 250
|
||
Fagus ferruginea, see Fagus graruiifolia Santalum acuminatum, 260
|
||
Fagus grandifolia, 157— 159 Schleichera oleosa, 267
|
||
Fagus sylvatica, 160— 162 Sclerocarya coffra, 270
|
||
Fats, see also specific types Simmondsia chinensis, 273
|
||
Acrocomia totai, 3 Telfairia occidentalis, 276
|
||
Aleurites moluccana, 13 Telfairia pedata, 278, 279
|
||
Anacardium occidentale, 20 Terminalia catappa, 282
|
||
Apios americana, 23 Trapa natans, 285
|
||
Areca catechu, 26, 27 Treculia africana, 287, 288
|
||
Arenga pinnata, 31 Fatty acids, see also specific types
|
||
Artocarpus altilis, 35 Acrocomia sclerocarpa, 1
|
||
Artocarpus heterophyllus, 37
|
||
Acrocomia totai, 4
|
||
Balanites aegyptiaca, 41
|
||
Buchanania lanzan, 58
|
||
Bertholletia excelsa, 44 Caryocar villosum, 76
|
||
Borassus fiabeIlifer, 47, 48
|
||
Ceiba pentandra, 91
|
||
Bosimum alicastrum, 50, 51
|
||
Corylus avellana, 119
|
||
Butyrospermum paradoxum, 59 Cycas revoluta, 135
|
||
Calamus rotang, 62
|
||
Cyperus esculentus, 140
|
||
Canarium indicum, 65 Elaeis oleifera, 152
|
||
Canarium ovatum, 67 Ginkgo biloba, 164
|
||
Carya illinoensis, 69, 70 Lecythis pisonis, 202
|
||
Castanea crenata, 80 Madhuca longifolia, 2 1 1
|
||
Castanea dentata, 82 Moringa oleifera, 215
|
||
Castanea sativa, 90 Pistacia vera, 240
|
||
Ceiba pentandra, 91 Platonia esculenta, 248
|
||
Cocos nucífera, 101, 102 Prunus dulcis, 250
|
||
Cola acuminata, 107, 108 Quercus súber, 253
|
||
Cola nitida, 110 Ricinodendron heudelotii, 257
|
||
324 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
Ricinodendron rautanenii, 258
|
||
Trapa natans, 285
|
||
Santalum acuminatum, 260
|
||
Treculia africana, 287, 288
|
||
Sapium se bife rum, 263
|
||
Fibrin, 53
|
||
Virola sebifera, 290
|
||
Filbert
|
||
Virola surinamensis, 292 American, see Corylus americana
|
||
Fatty oils, 110, 194, 211, 215, see also specific types beaked, see Corylus cornuta
|
||
Ferulic acid, 160 Chinese, see Corylus chinensis
|
||
Fiber European, see Corylus avellana
|
||
Acrocomia total, 3, 4 giant, see Corylus maxima
|
||
Anacardium occidentale, 20 Himalayan, see Corylus ferox
|
||
Apios americana, 23
|
||
Lambert’s, see Corylus maxima
|
||
Areca catechu, 21
|
||
Siberian, see Corylus heterophylla
|
||
Arenga pinnata, 31
|
||
Tibetan, see Corylus ferox
|
||
Artocarpus altilis, 35
|
||
Turkish, see Corylus colurna
|
||
Artocarpus heterophyllus, 37 Flavonoids, 142, see also specific types
|
||
Balanites aegyptiaca, 41 Fluted pumpkin, see Telfairia occidentalis
|
||
Bertholletia excelsa, 44 Folic acid, 191, 211, 250, see also Vitamin B
|
||
Borassus flabellifer, 47 Folk medicine
|
||
Bosimum alicastrum, 50, 51 Acrocomia sclerocarpa, 1
|
||
Butyrospermum paradoxum, 59 Acrocomia total, 3
|
||
Calamus rotang, 62
|
||
Adhatoda vasica, 5
|
||
Canarium ovatum, 67
|
||
Aleurites f ordii, 8
|
||
Carya illinoensis, 69
|
||
Aleurites moluccana, 12
|
||
Castanea crenata, 80 Aleurites montana, 14
|
||
Castanea dentata, 82 Amphicarpaea bracteata, 16
|
||
Castanea sativa, 90 Anacardium occidentale, 19
|
||
Ceiba pentandra, 97 Apios americana, 22
|
||
Cocos nucífera, 1 0 1 , 1 0 2 Areca catechu, 26
|
||
Cola acuminata, 107, 108
|
||
Arenga pinnata, 30— 31
|
||
Cordeauxia edulis, 114 Artocarpus altilis, 34
|
||
Corylus avellana, 119
|
||
Artocarpus heterophyllus, 37
|
||
Coula edulis, 131
|
||
Balanites aegyptiaca, 41
|
||
Cyperus esculentus, 140
|
||
Barringtonia procera, 43
|
||
Cyperus rotundus, 142
|
||
Bertholletia excelsa, 44
|
||
Detarium senegalense, 145 Borassus flabellifer, 47
|
||
Elaeis guineensis, 148 Bosimum alicastrum, 50
|
||
Eleocharis dulcís, 154 Brosimum utile, 53
|
||
Fagus grandifolia, 158 Bruguiera gymnorhiza, 55
|
||
Ginkgo biloba, 164
|
||
Buchanania lanzan, 57— 58
|
||
Gnetum gnemon, 166
|
||
Calamus rotang, 62
|
||
Helianthus annuus, 169
|
||
Canarium indicum, 65
|
||
Hyphaene thebaica, 174
|
||
Canarium ovatum, 67
|
||
Inocarpus edulis, 175 Carya illinoensis, 69
|
||
Jatropha curcas, 178
|
||
Caryocar amygdaliferum, 73
|
||
Juglans regia, 194
|
||
Caryocar nuciferum, 74
|
||
Macadamia integrifolia, 207
|
||
Caryocar villosum, 75
|
||
Madhuca longifolia, 2 1 1
|
||
Caryodendron orinocense, 78
|
||
Moringa oleifera, 215
|
||
Castanea crenata, 80
|
||
Nelumbo nucífera, 219 Castanea dentata, 82
|
||
Orbignya martiana, 226 Castanea mollissima, 85
|
||
Pachira aquatica, 229 Castanea pumila, 8 8
|
||
Phytelephas macrocarpa, 234 Castanea sativa, 90
|
||
Pinus edulis, 236 Castanospermum australe, 93
|
||
Pistacia vera, 240, 241 Ceiba pentandra, 97
|
||
Prunus dulcís, 250 Cocos nucífera, 101
|
||
Schleicher a oleosa, 267 Cola acuminata, 107
|
||
Sclerocarya cajfra, 270 Cola nitida, 110
|
||
Simmondsia chinensis, 273 Cola verticillata, 113
|
||
Telfairia occidentalis, 276 Cordeauxia edulis, 114
|
||
Telfairia pedata, 279 Corylus americana, 116
|
||
Terminalia calappa, 282 Corylus avellana, 119
|
||
325
|
||
Cory lus chinensis, 123 Trapa natans, 284
|
||
Corylus colurna, 124 Treculia africana, 287
|
||
Corylus cornuta, 126 Virola sebifera, 290
|
||
Corylus ferox, 128 Virola surinamensis, 292
|
||
Corylus heterophyIla, 129 Formaldehyde, 135
|
||
Formic acid, 164
|
||
Corylus maxima, 130
|
||
Friedelin, 253
|
||
Coula edulis, 131
|
||
Cycas circinalis, 133 Fructose, 142, 178,211
|
||
Fungi
|
||
Cycas revoluta, 135
|
||
Cycas rumphii, 137 Acrocomia total, 3
|
||
Cyperus esculentus, 139— 140 Adhatoda vasica, 1
|
||
Cyperus rotundas, 142 Aleurites moluccana, 13
|
||
Detarium senegalense, 145 Aleurites montana, 15
|
||
Elaeis guineensis, 148 Anacardium occidentale, 21
|
||
Elaeis oleifera, 152 Areca catechu, 29
|
||
Eleocharis dulcis, 154 Arenga pinnata, 33
|
||
Artocarpus altilis, 36
|
||
Fagus grandifolia, 157— 158
|
||
Artocarpus heterophyllus, 38— 39
|
||
Fagus sylvatica, 160
|
||
Ginkgo biloba, 163— 164 Balanites aegyptiaca, 42
|
||
Gnetum gnemon, 166 Borassus flabellifer, 49
|
||
Helianthus annuus, 168— 169 Bosimum alicastrum, 52
|
||
Hyphaene thebaica, 173— 174 Buchanania lanzan, 58
|
||
I nocarpus edulis, 175 Butyrospermum paradoxum, 61
|
||
Jatropha curcas, 177— 178 Calamus rotang, 64
|
||
Jessenia bataua, 181 Canarium indicum, 66
|
||
Juglans ailanthifolia, 184 Carya illinoensis, 12
|
||
Castanea crenata, 81
|
||
Juglans cinerea, 186
|
||
Castanea dentata, 84
|
||
Juglans hindsii, 189
|
||
Juglans nigra, 190 Castanea sativa, 92
|
||
Juglans regia, 194 Castanospermum australe, 95
|
||
Lecythis minor, 198 Ceiba pentandra, 99
|
||
Lecythis ollaria, 200 Cocos nucífera, 105— 106
|
||
Lecythis pisonis, 202 Cola acuminata, 109
|
||
Licania rigida, 204 Cola nitida, 112
|
||
Macadamia integrifolia, 207 Cola verticillata, 113
|
||
Madhuca longifolia, 2 1 1 Corylus americana, 118
|
||
Moringa oleifera, 215 Corylus avellana, 122
|
||
Nelumbo nucífera, 218— 219 Corylus colurna, 125
|
||
Nypa fruticans, 222 Corylus cornuta, 127
|
||
Orbignya cohune, 224 Corylus maxima, 130
|
||
Orbignya mart lana, 225 Cyperus esculentus, 141
|
||
Pachira aquatica, 229 Cyperus rotundus, 143
|
||
Paullinia cupana, 231— 232 Elaeis guineensis, 151
|
||
Phytelephas macrocarpa, 234 Eleocharis dulcis, 156
|
||
Pinus edulis, 236 Fagus grandifolia, 159
|
||
Pinus quadrifolia, 238 Fagus sylvatica, 162
|
||
Pistacia vera, 240 Helianthus annuus, 172
|
||
Pittosporum resinferum, 244 Juglans ailanthifolia, 185
|
||
Platonia esculenta, 247 Juglans cinerea, 187— 188
|
||
Prunus dulcis, 249— 250 Juglans hindsii, 189
|
||
Quercus súber, 253 Juglans regia, 196— 197
|
||
Ricinodendron heudelotii, 256— 257 Madhuca longifolia, 213
|
||
Ricinodendron rautanenii, 258 Moringa oleifera, 217
|
||
Santalum acuminatum, 260 Nelumbo nucífera, 221
|
||
Sapium sebiferum, 263 Orbignya cohune, 224
|
||
Schleichera oleosa, 266— 267 Paullinia cupana, 233
|
||
Sclerocarya coffra, 270 Pinus quadrifolia, 239
|
||
Simmondsia chinensis, 273 Pistacia vera, 243
|
||
Telfairia occidentalis, 216 Quercus súber, 255
|
||
Telfairia pedata, 278 Ricinodendron heudelotii, 257
|
||
Terminaba catappa, 281— 282 Sapium sebiferum, 265
|
||
326 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
Schleichera oleosa, 268 Cordeauxia edulis, 115
|
||
Sclerocarya cajfra, 271 Corylus americana, 116
|
||
Simmondsia chinensis, 275 Corylus avellana, 120
|
||
Telfairia pedata, 280 Corylus chinensis, 123
|
||
Terminalia catappa, 283 Corylus colurna, 124
|
||
Trapa natans, 286 Corylus cornuta, 126
|
||
Furfural, 191
|
||
Corylus ferox, 128
|
||
Corylus heterophylla, 129
|
||
Corylus maxima, 130
|
||
Coula edulis, 132
|
||
Gabon nut, see Coula edulis
|
||
Cycas circinalis, 134
|
||
Gadoleic acid, 267 Cycas revoluta, 135
|
||
Galactan, 119 Cycas rumphii, 138
|
||
Galactodendron utile, see Brosimum utile Cyperus esculentus, 140
|
||
Galactose, 20, 135, 160, 178, 215, 235, 250 Cyperus rotundas, 143
|
||
Gallic acid, 1, 240, 263, 282 Detarium senegalense, 146
|
||
Gallocatechin, 219 Elaeis guineensis, 149
|
||
Gallotanic acid, 240, 267 Elaeis oleifera, 152
|
||
Gbanja kola, see Cola nitida
|
||
Eleocharis dulcis, 155
|
||
Geographical distribution
|
||
Fagus grandifolia, 158
|
||
Acrocomia scleracarpa, 1
|
||
Fagus sylvatica, 161
|
||
Acrocomia totai, 3
|
||
Ginkgo biloba, 164
|
||
Adhatoda vasica, 6
|
||
Gnetum gnemon, 167
|
||
Aleurites fordii, 8 Helianthus annuus, 169
|
||
Aleurites moluccana, 13 Hyphaene thebaica, 174
|
||
Aleurites montana, 14 I nocarpus edulis, 176
|
||
Amphicarpaea hracteata, 17 Jatropha curcas, 178
|
||
Anacardium occidentale, 20 Jessenia bataua, 181
|
||
Apios americana, 24 Juglans ailanthifolia, 184
|
||
Areca catechu, 27 Juglans cinerea, 187
|
||
Arenga pianata, 31 Juglans hindsii, 189
|
||
Artocarpus altilis, 35 Juglans nigra, 191
|
||
Artocarpus heterophyllus, 38
|
||
Juglans regia, 195
|
||
Balanites aegyptiaca, 41
|
||
Lecythis minor, 198— 199
|
||
Barringtonia procera, 43
|
||
Lecythis ollaria, 201
|
||
Bertholletia excelsa, 45
|
||
Lecythis pisonis, 203
|
||
Borassus flabellifer, 48
|
||
Licania rigida, 205
|
||
Bosimum alicastrum, 51 Macadamia integrifolia, 208
|
||
Brosimum utile, 53 Madhuca longifolia, 2 1 2
|
||
Bruguiera gymnorhiza, 56 Moringa oleifera, 216
|
||
Buchanania lanzan, 58 Nelumbo nucifera, 220
|
||
Butyrospermum paradoxum, 60 Nypa fruticans, 223
|
||
Calamus rotang, 63 Orbignya cohune, 224
|
||
Canarium indicum, 6 6 Orbignya martiana, 227
|
||
Canarium ovatum, 67 Pachira aquatica, 230
|
||
Carya illinoensis, 70 Paullinia cupana, 232
|
||
Caryocar amygdaliferum, 73 Phytelephas macrocarpa, 235
|
||
Caryocar nuciferum, 74
|
||
Pinus edulis, 237
|
||
Caryocar villosum, 77
|
||
Pinus quadrifolia, 238
|
||
Caryodendron orinocense, 78
|
||
Pistacia vera, 241
|
||
Castanea crenata, 80
|
||
Pittosporum resinferum, 245
|
||
Castanea dentata, 82— 83
|
||
Platonia esculenta, 248
|
||
Castanea mollissima, 8 6
|
||
Prunus dulcis, 250
|
||
Castanea pumila, 88— 89
|
||
Quercus súber, 254
|
||
Castanea sativa, 91
|
||
Ricinodendron heudelotii, 257
|
||
Castanospermum australe, 94
|
||
Ricinodendron rautanenii, 258
|
||
Ceiba pentandra, 98 Santalum acuminatum, 261
|
||
Cocos nucifera, 102 Sapium sebiferum, 263
|
||
Cola acuminata, 109 Schleichera oleosa, 267
|
||
Cola nitida, 110 Sclerocarya cajfra, 270
|
||
Cola verticillata, 113
|
||
Simmondsia chinensis, 274
|
||
327
|
||
Telfairia occidentalis, 276 Cyperus rotundas, 143
|
||
Te If airia pedata, 279
|
||
Detarium senegalense, 146
|
||
Terminalia calappa, 283 Elaeis guineensis, 148— 149
|
||
Trapa natans, 285 Elaeis oleifera, 152
|
||
Treculia africana, 289 Eleocharis dulcis, 155
|
||
Virola schiferà, 291 Fagus grandifolia, 158
|
||
Germplasm Fagus sylvatica, 160— 161
|
||
Acrocomia sclerocarpa, 1 Ginkgo biloba, 164
|
||
Acrocomia totai, 3 G ne turn gnemon, 167
|
||
Adhatoda vasica, 6
|
||
Helianthus annuus, 169
|
||
Aleurites fordii, 8
|
||
Hyphaene thebaica, 174
|
||
Aleurites moluccana, 13
|
||
Inocarpus edulis, 176
|
||
Aleurites montana, 14
|
||
Jatropha curcas, 178
|
||
Amphicarpaea bracteata, 17 Jessenia bataua, 181
|
||
Anacardium occidentale, 20 Juglans ailanthifolia, 184
|
||
Apios americana, 24 Juglans cinerea, 186— 187
|
||
Areca catechu, 27 Juglans hindsii, 189
|
||
Arenga pinnata, 31 Juglans nigra, 191
|
||
Artocarpus altilis, 35 Juglans regia, 195
|
||
Artocarpus heterophyllus, 38 Lecythis minor, 198
|
||
Balanites aegyptiaca, 41 Lecythis ollaria, 2 0 1
|
||
Barringtonia procera, 43 Lecythis pisonis, 202— 203
|
||
Bertholletia excelsa, 45
|
||
Licania rigida, 205
|
||
Borassus flabellifer, 48
|
||
Macadamia integrifolia, 208
|
||
Bosimum alicastrum, 5 1
|
||
Madhuca longifolia, 2 1 2
|
||
Brosimum utile, 53 Moringa oleifera, 216
|
||
Bruguiera gymnorhiza, 56 Nelumbo nucifera, 220
|
||
Buchanania lanzan, 58 Nypa fruticans, 223
|
||
Butyrospermum paradoxum, 60 Orbignya cohune, 224
|
||
Calamus rotang, 63 Orbignya martiana, 227
|
||
Canarium indicum, 6 6 Pachira aquatica, 230
|
||
Canarium ovatum, 67 Paullinia cupana, 232
|
||
Carya illinoensis, 70 Phytelephas macrocarpa, 235
|
||
Caryocar amygdaliferum, 73 Pinus edulis, 236— 237
|
||
Caryocar nuciferum, 74 Pinus quadrifolia, 238
|
||
Caryocar villosum, 77 Pistacia vera, 241
|
||
Caryodendron orinocense, 78 Pittosporum resinferum, 245
|
||
Castanea crenata, 80
|
||
Platonia esculenta, 248
|
||
Castanea dentata, 82
|
||
Prunus dulcis, 250
|
||
Castanea mollissima, 8 6 Quercus súber, 254
|
||
Castanea pumila, 8 8 Ricinodendron heudelotii, 257
|
||
Castanea sativa, 90— 91 Ricinodendron rautanenii, 258
|
||
Castanospermum australe, 94 Santalum acuminatum, 261
|
||
Ceiba pentandra, 98 Sapium sebiferum, 263
|
||
Cocos nucifera, 102 Schleicher a oleosa, 267
|
||
Cola acuminata, 109 Sclerocarya caffra, 270
|
||
Cola nitida, 110 Simmondsia chinensis, 273— 274
|
||
Cola verticillata, 113 Telfairia occidentalis, 276
|
||
Cordeauxia edulis, 115 Telfairia pedata, 279
|
||
Corylus americana, 116 Terminalia catappa, 282— 283
|
||
Corylus avellana, 119— 120 Trapa natans, 285
|
||
Corylus colurna, 124 Treculia africana, 289
|
||
Corylus cornuta, 126 Virola sebifera, 291
|
||
Corylus ferox, 128
|
||
Giant filbert, see Corylus maxima
|
||
Gìnkgetin, 164
|
||
Corylus heterophylla, 129
|
||
Corylus maxima, 130 Ginkgic acid, 164
|
||
Coula edulis, 132 Ginkgo, see Ginkgo biloba
|
||
Cycas circinalis, 134 Ginkgoaceae, 163— 165, see also specific species
|
||
Cycas revoluta, 135 Ginkgo biloba, 163— 165
|
||
Cycas rumphii, 137 Ginkgol, 164
|
||
Cyperus esculentus, 140 Ginkgolic acid, 164
|
||
328 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
Ginnol, 164 Hanga, see Pittosporum resinferum
|
||
Globulins, 35, 114, 250, 282, 287, see also specific Harvesting
|
||
types Acrocomia sclerocarpa, 2
|
||
Glucoluteolin, 219 Acrocomia totai, 3
|
||
Glucose Adhatoda vasica, 1
|
||
Balanites aegyptiaca, 41 Aleurites fordii, 10
|
||
Borassus flabellifer, 48 Aleurites moluccana, 13
|
||
Bosimum alicastrum, 51 Aleurites montana, 15
|
||
Cola nitida, 110 Amphicarpaea hracteata, 18
|
||
Anacardium occidentale, 21
|
||
Cycas revoluta, 135
|
||
Apios americana, 25
|
||
Cyperus rotundas, 142
|
||
Jatropha curcas, 178 Areca catechu, 28
|
||
Madhuca longifolia, 211 Arenga pinnata, 32
|
||
Phytelephas macrocarpa, 235 Artocarpus alti lis, 36
|
||
Glucosidases, 94, see also specific types Artocarpus heterophyllus, 38
|
||
Glucosides, 114, see also specific types Balanites aegyptiaca, 42
|
||
Glucuronic acid, 215, 250 Barringtonia procera, 43
|
||
Glutamic acid, 35, 263, 270, 273, 282 Bertholletia excelsa, 45
|
||
Glutamine, 23, 114, 160 Borassus flabellifer, 48— 49
|
||
Glutathione, 219 Bosimum alicastrum, 52
|
||
Glutelins, 35, see also specific types Brosimum utile, 53— 54
|
||
Gluten, 282 Bruguiera gymnorhiza, 56
|
||
Glyceim, 253 Buchanania lanzan, 58
|
||
Glycerides, see also specific types Butyrospermum paradoxum, 60— 61
|
||
Aleurites moluccana, 13 Calamus rotang, 63
|
||
Aleurites montana, 14 Canarium indicum, 6 6
|
||
Canarium ovatum, 67— 68
|
||
Anacardium occidentale, 20
|
||
Bertholletia excelsa, 44 Carya illinoensis, 1 1
|
||
Caryocar amygdaliferum, 73
|
||
Buchanania lanzan, 58
|
||
Caryocar nuciferum, 74
|
||
Caryocar villosum, 75, 76
|
||
Caryocar villosum, 77
|
||
Elaeis guineensis, 148
|
||
Madhuca longifolia, 211 Caryodendron orinocense, 79
|
||
Platonia esculenta, 247, 248 Castanea crenata, 81
|
||
Schleichera oleosa, 267 Castanea dentata, 83— 84
|
||
Telfairia occidentalis, 276 Castanea mollissima, 87
|
||
Virola surinamensis, 292 Castanea pumila, 89
|
||
Glycine, 35, 51, 114, 160, 263, 273, 282 Castanea sativa, 92
|
||
Glycoproteins, 94, see also specific types Castanospermum australe, 94
|
||
Glycosides, 110, 133, 142, see also specific types Ceiba pentandra, 98— 99
|
||
Gnetaceae, 166— 167, see also specific species Cocos nucifera, 104— 105
|
||
Gnetum gnemon, 166— 167 Cola acuminata, 109
|
||
Gossypol, 97 Cola nitida, 111
|
||
Groundnut, see Apios americana Cola verticillata, 113
|
||
Gru-gru nut, see Acrocomia sclerocarpa; Acrocomia Cordeauxia edulis, 115
|
||
totai Corylus americana, 117— 118
|
||
Guaiacol, 158 Corylus avellana, 121
|
||
Guanine, 232 Corylus chinensis, 123
|
||
Guanosine, 119 Corylus colurna, 125
|
||
Guaraña, see Paullinia cupana Corylus cornuta, 127
|
||
Guaranine, 232 Corylus ferox, 128
|
||
Guilandina moringa, see Moringa oleifera Corylus heterophylla, 129
|
||
Gums, 20, 53, 108, 110, 160, 215, 258, 270, see also
|
||
Corylus maxima, 130
|
||
Coula edulis, 132
|
||
specific types
|
||
Cycas circinalis, 134
|
||
Guru, see Cola acuminata
|
||
Gutta, 211 Cycas revoluta, 135— 136
|
||
Guvacine, 26 Cycas rumphii, 138
|
||
Guvacoline, 26 Cyperus esculentus, 141
|
||
Cyperus rotundas, 143
|
||
Detarium senegalense, 146
|
||
H
|
||
Elaeis guineensis, 150
|
||
Hadji, see Cycas rumphii Elaeis oleifera, 153
|
||
329
|
||
Eleocharis dulcís, 155 Histamine, 114
|
||
Fagus grandifolia, 159 Histidine
|
||
Fagus sylvatica, 161 Artocarpus altilis, 35
|
||
Ginkgo biloba, 165 Bosimum alicastrum, 51
|
||
Gnetum gnemon, 167 Fagus sylvatica, 160
|
||
Helianthus annuus, 170 Moringa oleifera, 215
|
||
Hyphaene thebaica, 174 Prunus dulcis, 250
|
||
I nocarpus edulis, 176 Ricinodendron rautanenii, 258
|
||
Jatropha curcas, 179 Sapium sebiferum, 263
|
||
Jessenia bataua, 182 Simmondsia chinensis, 273
|
||
Juglans ailanthifolia, 185 Terminalia catappa, 282
|
||
Hog peanut, see Amphicarpaea brat teata
|
||
Juglans cinerea, 187
|
||
Juglans hindsii, 189 Honey tree, see Schleichera oleosa
|
||
Juglans nigra, 192 Horseradish tree, see Moringa oleifera
|
||
Juglans regia, 196 Hydrocyanic acid, 267
|
||
Lecythis minor, 199 Hydroxybenzoic acid, 160
|
||
Lecythis ollaria, 201 Hydroxyglutamic acid, 160
|
||
Lecythis pisonis, 203 Hydroxy-9-octadecenoic acid, 253
|
||
Licania rigida, 205— 206 Hydroxyproline, 160
|
||
Macadamia integrifolia, 209 Hyperin, 194
|
||
Madhuca longifolia, 212— 213 Hyperoside, 219
|
||
Moringa oleifera, 216 Hyphaene thebaica, 173— 174
|
||
Nelumbo nucífera, 220 Hypoxanthine, 232
|
||
Nypa fruticans, 223
|
||
Orbignya cohune, 224
|
||
I
|
||
Orbignya martiana, 227
|
||
Pachira aquatica, 230 Idalin, 160
|
||
Paullinia cupana, 233 Illupei tree, see Madhuca longifolia
|
||
Inche, see Caryodendron orinocense
|
||
Phytelephas macrocarpa, 235
|
||
Pinus edulis, 237 Indian almond, see Terminalia catappa
|
||
Pinus quadrifolia, 238 Indian lotus, see Nelumbo nucífera
|
||
Pistacia vera, 242 Indian walnut, see Aleurites moluccana
|
||
Pittosporum resinferum, 245 Indoleacetic acid, 215
|
||
Platonia esculenta, 248 Indole acetonitrile, 215
|
||
Prunus dulcís, 251 Inocarpus edulis, 175— 176
|
||
Quercus súber, 254— 255 I nocarpus fagifer us, see Inocarpus edulis
|
||
Ricinodendron heudelotii, 257 Inositol, 69, 160, 191,211
|
||
Ricinodendron rautanenii, 259 Insects, see also specific types
|
||
Santalum acuminatum, 261 Acrocomia totai, 3
|
||
Sapium sebiferum, 264 Adhatoda vasica, 1
|
||
Schleichera oleosa, 268 Aleurites f ordii, 10, 11
|
||
Sclerocarya cajfra, 271 Amphicarpaea bracteata, 18
|
||
Simmondsia chinensis, 21A Anacardium occidentale, 21
|
||
Telfairia occidentalis, 277 Apios americana, 25
|
||
Telfairia pedata, 280 Areca catechu, 29
|
||
Terminaba catappa, 283 Arenga pinnata, 33
|
||
Trapa natans, 286 Butyrospermum paradoxum, 61
|
||
Treculia africana, 289 Carya illinoensis, 12
|
||
Castanea mollissima, 87
|
||
Virola sebifera, 291
|
||
Castanospermum australe, 95
|
||
Virola surinamensis, 292
|
||
Hasu, see Nelumbo nucífera Ceiba pentandra, 99
|
||
Hazelnut, see Corylus americana, Corylus avellana, Cocos nucífera, 106
|
||
Corylus colurna Cola nitida, 112
|
||
Heartnut, see Juglans ailanthifolia Cordeauxia edulis, 115
|
||
Helianthus annuus, 168— 172 Corylus americana, 118
|
||
Heptane, 244, 245 Corylus avellana, 122
|
||
Hexacosanol, 160 Corylus cornuta, 127
|
||
Hexadecenoic acid; 152, 247 Cyperus esculentus, 141
|
||
Hicoria pecan, see Carya illinoensis Cyperus rotundas, 143— 144
|
||
Himalayan filbert, see Corylus ferox Detarium senegalense, 146
|
||
Hind’s black walnut, see Juglans hindsii Elaeis guineensis, 151
|
||
330 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
Elaeis oleifera, 153 Moringa oleifera, 215
|
||
Fagus sylvatica, 162 Nelumbo nucífera, 219
|
||
Ginkgo biloba, 165 Pachira aquatica, 229
|
||
Helianthus annuus, 171— 172 Pistacia vera, 240, 241
|
||
Hyphaene thebaica, 174 Prunas dulcis, 250
|
||
Juglans nigra, 193 Sclerocarya caffra, 270
|
||
Juglans regia, 197 Telfairia pedata, 278, 279
|
||
Lecythis minor, 199 Terminaba catappa, 282
|
||
Lecythis pisonis, 203 Trapa natans, 285
|
||
Licania rigida, 206 Trecuba africana, 288
|
||
Macadamia integrifolia, 209 Isoguvacine, 26
|
||
Madhuca longifolia, 213 Isoleucine, 35, 51, 114, 215, 258, 273, 282
|
||
Moringa oleifera, 217 Isolicanic acid, 204
|
||
Orbignya cohune, 224
|
||
Isoquercitrin, 160, 219, 263
|
||
Orbignya martiana, 228
|
||
Isorhamnetin 3,7-dirhamnoside, 273
|
||
Pachira aquatica, 230 Isorhamnetin 3-rutinoside, 273
|
||
Paullinia cupana, 233 Isovitexin, 178
|
||
Phytelephas macrocarpa, 235 Italian chestnut, see Castanea sativa
|
||
Pistacia vera, 243 Ivory nut palm, see Phytelephas macrocarpa
|
||
Prunas dulcis, 252
|
||
Sapium sebiferum, 265
|
||
Schleicher a oleosa, 268
|
||
Sclerocarya caffra, 271 Jackfruit, see Artocarpus heterophyllus
|
||
Simmondsia chinensis, 275 Jagua, see Jessenia bataua
|
||
Telfairia pedata, 280 Japanese chestnut, see Castanea crenata
|
||
Terminaba catappa, 283 Japanese walnut, see Juglans ailanthifoba
|
||
Trapa natans, 286 Jatropha curcas, 177— 179
|
||
Virola sebifera, 291 Java-almond, see Canarium indicum
|
||
Iodine, 1,4, 241, 285 Jericho balsam, see Balanites aegyptiaca
|
||
Ipuranol, 164 Jessenia bataua, 180— 183
|
||
Iron Jessenia poly car pa, see Jessenia bataua
|
||
Aleurites moluccana, 13
|
||
Jesuit nut, see Trapa natans
|
||
Amphicarpaea bracteata, 17 Jikungo, see Telfairia pedata
|
||
Anacardium occidentale, 20
|
||
Jojoba, see Simmondsia chinensis
|
||
Areca catechu, 27 Juglandaceae, 69— 71, 184— 197, see also specific
|
||
Artocarpus altilis, 35 species
|
||
Artocarpus heterophyllus, 37 Juglandic acid, 186
|
||
Bert hollé tia excelsa, 44 Juglandin, 186
|
||
Borassus flabellifer, 47 Juglans ailanthifoba, 184— 185
|
||
Bosimum alicastrum, 50, 51 Juglans allardiana, see Juglans ailanthifoba
|
||
Butyrospermum paradoxum, 60
|
||
Juglans cabfornica, see Juglans hindsii
|
||
Calamus rotang, 62 Juglans cinerea, 186— 188
|
||
Canarium ovatum, 67 Juglans coarctata, see Juglans ailanthifoba
|
||
Carya illinoensis, 69 Juglans hindsii, 189
|
||
Castanea crenata, 80 Juglans lavallei, see Juglans ailanthifoba
|
||
Castanea mollissima, 85 Juglans mirabunda, see Juglans ailanthifoba
|
||
Castanea sativa, 90 Juglans nigra, 190— 193
|
||
Cocos nucifera, 101, 102 Juglans regia, 194— 197
|
||
Cola acuminata, 107 Juglans sachalinensis, see Juglans ailanthifoba
|
||
Cordeauxia edulis, 114 Juglans sieboldiana, see Juglans ailanthifoba
|
||
Corylus avellana, 119 Juglone, 186, 191
|
||
Cyperus esculentus, 140 Juri, see Castanea crenata
|
||
Cyperus rotundas, 142
|
||
Elaeis guineensis, 148
|
||
Eleocharis dulcis, 154
|
||
Ginkgo biloba, 164 Kaempferol, 160, 194, 219
|
||
Helianthus annuus, 169 Kaempferol-3-arabinoside, 194
|
||
Juglans cinerea, 186 Kakari taccy nut, see Caryodendron orinocense
|
||
Juglans nigra, 191 Kanari, see Canarium indicum
|
||
Juglans regia, 194 Kaong, see Arenga pinnata
|
||
Madhuca longifolia, 211 Kapok, see Ceiba pentandra
|
||
331
|
||
Kenari, see Canarium indicum Bertholletia excelsa, 44
|
||
Kola, Gbanja, see Cola nitida Buchanania lanzan, 58
|
||
Kola nut, see Cola acuminata Butyrospermum paradoxum, 60
|
||
Kotamba, see Terminalia catappa Canarium indicum, 65
|
||
Kusum tree, see Schleichera oleosa
|
||
Carya illinoensis, 69, 70
|
||
Caryocar villosum, 76
|
||
Castanea sativa, 90
|
||
Ceiba pentandra, 97
|
||
Lactic acid, 160 Cocos nucifera, 102
|
||
Lac tree, see Schleichera oleosa Corylus avellana, 119
|
||
Lambert’s filbert, see Corylus maxima Cyperus esculentus, 140
|
||
Lapachol, 211 Cyperus rotundus, 142
|
||
Lapachones, 211, see also specific types Elaeis guineensis, 148
|
||
Laurie acid Elaeis oleifera, 152
|
||
Cary a illinoensis, 69 Fagus sylvatica, 160
|
||
Cocos nucifera, 102 Helianthus annuus, 169
|
||
Fagus sylvatica, 160 Jatropha curcas, 178
|
||
Helianthus annuus, 169 Jug Ians regia, 194
|
||
Macadamia integrifolia, 207 Lecythis pisonis, 202
|
||
Schleichera oleosa, 267 Licania rigida, 204
|
||
Virola sehifera, 290 Macadamia inte grif olia, 207
|
||
Virola surinamensis, 292 Madhuca longifolia, 211
|
||
Lectins, 17, see also specific types Pachira aquatica, 229
|
||
Pistacia vera, 240, 241
|
||
Lecythidaceae, 198— 203, see also specific species
|
||
Lecythis elliptica, see Lecythis minor Platonia esculenta, 247
|
||
Lecythis minor, 198— 199 Prunus dulcis, 250
|
||
Lecythis ollaria, 200— 201 Ricinodendron heudelotii, 257
|
||
Lecythis pisonis, 202— 203 Ricinodendron rautanenii, 258
|
||
Leucine Santalum acuminatum, 260
|
||
Artocarpus altilis, 35 Sapium sebiferum, 263
|
||
Bosimum alicastrum, 51 Telfairia occidentalis, 276
|
||
Butyrospermum paradoxum, 60 Terminalia catappa, 282
|
||
Cordeauxia edulis, 114
|
||
Treculia africana, 288
|
||
Fagus sylvatica, 160
|
||
Virola sebifera, 290
|
||
Prunus dulcis, 250 Virola surinamensis, 292
|
||
Ricinodendron rautanenii, 258 Linolenic acid
|
||
Sapium sebiferum, 263 Aleurites moluccana, 13
|
||
Simmondsia chinensis, 273 Amphicarpaea bracteata, 17
|
||
Terminalia catappa, 282 Canarium indicum, 65
|
||
Leucocyanadine, 20
|
||
Carya illinoensis, 69, 70
|
||
Leucocyanidin, 160, 219, 282 Elaeis oleifera, 152
|
||
Leucodelphinidin, 160, 219 Ginkgo biloba, 164
|
||
Licania rigida, 204— 206 Helianthus annuus, 169
|
||
Licanic acid, 204 Juglans regia, 194
|
||
Ligin, 253 Madhuca longifolia, 211
|
||
Lignans, 290, see also specific types Sapium sebiferum, 263
|
||
Lignin, 253 Lipids, 4, 287, see also specific types
|
||
Lignoceric acid, 20, 97, 169, 215, 267 Liriodenine, 219
|
||
Lignoceryl alcohol, 119 Lotus, see Nelumbo nucifera
|
||
Lignocerylalcohol, 119 Lotus root, see Nelumbo nucifera
|
||
Lignone, 97 Lucine, 215
|
||
Limonene, 142, 245 Lumbang oil, see Aleurites moluccana
|
||
Linoceric acid, 140 Lupeol, 60
|
||
Linoleic acid Lutelins, 287, see also specific types
|
||
Acrocomia scleracarpa, 1 Luteolin, 219
|
||
Acrocomia totai, 4 Luteolin-7-glucoside, 219
|
||
Aleurites moluccana, 13 Lycine, 263
|
||
Aleurites montana, 14 Lysine
|
||
Amphicarpaea bracteata, 17 Bosimum alicastrum, 51
|
||
Anacardium occidentale, 20 Buchanania lanzan, 58
|
||
Balanites aegyptiaca, 41 Cordeauxia edulis, 114
|
||
332 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
Moringa oleifera, 215
|
||
Fagus syhatica, 160
|
||
Jessenia hataua, 181 Prunus dulcis, 250
|
||
Moringa oleifera, 215 Ricinodendron rautanenii, 258
|
||
Prunas dale is, 250 Sapium sebiferum, 263
|
||
Ricinodendron rautanenii, 258 Simmondsia chinensis, 273
|
||
Sapium sehiferum, 263 Terminada catappa, 282
|
||
Simmondsia chinensis, 273 Methylaminopropionic acid, 133
|
||
Terminada catappa, 282 Methylcorypalline, 219
|
||
Methylpentosane, 160
|
||
Microorganisms, 3, 10— 11, 18 see also specific
|
||
M
|
||
types
|
||
Macadamia integrifolia, 207— 209 Mil pesos, see Jessenia bataua
|
||
Macadamia nut, see Macadamia integrifolia Minerals, see specific types
|
||
Macadamia tetraphylla, 207— 209 Mites, 25,29, 118, 162
|
||
Macauba, see Acrocomia sclerocarpa Mogongo nut, see Ricinodendron rautanenii
|
||
Macrozaniin, 135 Monkey pod, see Lecythis ollaria
|
||
Madhuca indica, see Madhuca longifolia Monkey pot, see Lecythis ollaria
|
||
Madhuca longifolia, 2 10— 213 Monoglycerides, 60, see also specific types
|
||
Magnesium Moraceae, 34— 39, 50— 54, 287— 289, see also
|
||
Amphicarpaea hracteata, 17 specific species
|
||
Moretenol, 263
|
||
Bertholletia excelsa, 44
|
||
Cocos nucífera, 102 Moretenone, 263
|
||
Jug Ians regia, 194 Moreton bay chestnut, see Castanospermum australe
|
||
Madhuca longifolia, 211 Morin, 37
|
||
Prunas dulcís, 250 Moringa, see Moringa oleifera
|
||
Santalum acuminatum, 260 Moringaceae, 214— 217, see also specific species
|
||
Trapa natans, 285 Moringa nux-ben, see Moringa oleifera
|
||
Treculia africana, 288 Moringa oleifera, 214— 217
|
||
Mahua, see Madhuca longifolia Moringa pterygosperma, see Moringa oleifera
|
||
Maidenhair tree, see Ginkgo biloba Mucaja, see Acrocomia sclerocarpa
|
||
Malabar chestnut, see Pachira aquatica Mucilage cola, see Cola verticillata
|
||
Malabar nut, see Adhatoda vasica Mu-oil tree, see Aleurites montana
|
||
Malay lac-tree, see Schleichera oleosa Murunga-Kai, see Moringa oleifera
|
||
Muscilage, 51
|
||
Malic acid, 160,211,270
|
||
Malindjo, see Gnetum gnemon Mutacone, 142
|
||
Maltose, 211 Muzinda, see Treculia africana
|
||
Mammee, wild, see Platonia esculenta Myrcene, 244
|
||
Manganese, 17, 44, 194, 241, 285 Myricetin, 160, 204, 211
|
||
Mani, see Caryocar amygdaliferum Myricetin-3-O-L-rhamnoside, 211
|
||
Manindjo, see Gnetum gnemon Myricitrin, 119
|
||
Manketti, see Ricinodendron rautanenii; Ricinoden Myricitroside, 119
|
||
dron heudelotii Myristicaceae, 290— 292, see also specific species
|
||
Mannan, 119, 234, 235 Myristic acid
|
||
Manninotriose, 119, 124 Bertholletia excelsa, 44
|
||
Mannitol, 174 Buchanania lanzan, 58
|
||
Mannose, 48, 174, 235 Carya illinoensis, 69
|
||
Maranhau nut, see Pachira aquatica Caryocar villosum, 76
|
||
Marmesin, 41 Cocos nucífera, 102
|
||
Manila nut, see Sclerocarya caffra Corylus avellana, 119
|
||
Marvola nut, see Sclerocarya caffra Cyperus esculentus, 140
|
||
Masico, see Bosimum alicastrum Cyperus rotundas, 142
|
||
Mawra butter tree, see Madhuca longifolia Elaeis guineensis, 148
|
||
Mbocaya, see Acrocomia total Fagus sylvatica, 160
|
||
Melibiose, 119, 124
|
||
Jatropha curcas, 178
|
||
Methanol, 263
|
||
Macadamia integrifolia, 207
|
||
Methionine
|
||
Moringa oleifera, 215
|
||
Artocarpus altilis, 35 Pistacia vera, 241
|
||
Bosimum alicastrum, 51 Platonia esculenta, 247
|
||
Buchanania lanzan, 58 Prunus dulcis, 250
|
||
Cordeauxia edulis, 114 Sapium sebiferum, 263
|
||
Fagus sylvatica, 160 Terminada catappa, 282
|
||
333
|
||
Virola sebifera, 290 Cocos nucífera, 102
|
||
Virola surinamensis, 292 Cola acuminata, 107, 108
|
||
Myrobalan, see Terminalia calappa Corylus avellana, 119
|
||
Myrtaceae, 43— 46, see also specific species Cyperus esculentus, 140
|
||
Cyperus rotundus, 142
|
||
Detarium senegalense, 145
|
||
N
|
||
Elaeis guineensis, 148
|
||
Nambi, see Caryodendron orinocense Eleocharis dulcis, 154
|
||
Naphthaquinone, 211 Ginkgo biloba, 164
|
||
Narcissin, 273 Helianthus annuus, 169
|
||
Native peach, see Santalum acuminatum Juglans nigra, 191
|
||
Nelumbium nelumbo, see Nelumbo nucífera Juglans regia, 194
|
||
Nelumbium speciosum, see Nelumbo nucífera Macadamia integrifolia, 207
|
||
Nelumbonaceae, 218— 221, see also specific species Madhuca longifolia, 211
|
||
Nelumbo nelumbo, see Nelumbo nucífera Moringa oleifera, 215
|
||
Nelumbo nucífera, 218— 221 Nelumbo nucífera, 219
|
||
Nematodes Pachira aquatica, 229
|
||
Aleurites fordii, 11 Pistacia vera, 240
|
||
Prunus dulcis, 250
|
||
Apios americana, 25
|
||
Areca catechu, 29 Sclerocarya caffra, 270
|
||
Artocarpus altilis, 36 Terminalia catappa, 282
|
||
Artocarpus heterophyllus, 39 Trapa natans, 285
|
||
Bertholletia excelsa, 46 Nickel, 44
|
||
Ceiba pentandra, 99 Nicotine, 191
|
||
Cocos nucífera, 106 Nicotinic acid, 215, 241, 285
|
||
Cola nitida, 112 Ñipa palm, see Nypa fruticans
|
||
Corylus avellana, 122 Nitrates, 23, see also specific types
|
||
Cyperus esculentus, 141 Nitrogen, 4, 17, 23, 97, 164, 276
|
||
Cyperus rotundas, 143 n-Nonacosan, 119, 160
|
||
Elaeis guineensis, 151 Nonane, 245
|
||
Eleocharis dulcis, 156 Nomuciferine, 219
|
||
Nua nut, see Barringtonia procera
|
||
Helianthus annuus, 172
|
||
Juglans ailanthifolia, 185 Nuciferine, 219
|
||
Nut pine, see Pinus edulis
|
||
Juglans cinerea, 188
|
||
Juglans nigra, 193 Nutrients, see spiecific types
|
||
Juglans regia, 197 Nutsedge, see Cyperus esculentus; Cyperus rotundus
|
||
Macadamia integrifolia, 209 Nymphaea nelumbo, see Nelumbo nucífera
|
||
Pistacia vera, 243 Nypa fruticans, 222— 223
|
||
Quercus súber, 255
|
||
Sapium sebiferum, 265
|
||
o
|
||
Telfairia pedata, 280
|
||
Terminalia calappa, 283 Oak, see Quercus súber; Schleichera oleosa
|
||
Neochlorogenic acid, 219 Ocimene, 244
|
||
Neocycasin A, 135 Octadecatrienic acid, 204
|
||
Neocycasin B, 135 Octadeconoic acid, 253
|
||
Nerolidol, 261 Oil nut, see Juglans cinerea
|
||
Neurine, 160 Oil palm, see Elaeis guineensis; Elaeis oleifera
|
||
Niacin Oils, see also specific types
|
||
Anacardium occidentale, 20 Aleurites fordii, 8
|
||
Areca catechu, 27 Aleurites montana, 14
|
||
Arenga pinnata, 31 Amphicarpaea bracteata, 17
|
||
Artocarpus heterophyllus, 2n Bosimum alicastrum, 51
|
||
Bertholletia excelsa, 44 Buchanania lanzan, 58
|
||
Borassus flabellifer, 47 Canarium indicum, 65
|
||
Bosimum alicastrum, 50, 51 Caryocar nuciferum, 74
|
||
Calamus rotang, 62 Caryocar villosum, 75
|
||
Canarium ovatum, 67 Caryodendron orinocense, 78
|
||
Carya illinoensis, 69 Castanea dentata, 82
|
||
Castanea crenata, 80 Ceiba pentandra, 91
|
||
Castanea mollissima, 85 Cola acuminata, 107
|
||
Castanea sativa, 90 Cola nitida, 110
|
||
334 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
Cory lus avellana, 119 Juglans regia, 194
|
||
Coula edulis, 131 Lecythis pisonis, 202
|
||
Cycas revoluta, 135 Licania rigida, 204
|
||
Cyperus eseulentus, 140 Macadamia integrifolia, 207
|
||
Cyperus rotundus, 142 Madhuca longifolia, 211
|
||
Elaeis guineensis, 148 Maringa oleifera, 215
|
||
Elaeis oleifera, 152 Pachira aquatica, 229
|
||
Ginkgo biloba, 164 Pistacia vera, 240, 241
|
||
Helianthus annuus, 169 Platonia esculenta, 247
|
||
Jatropha curcas, 178
|
||
Prunus dulcis, 250
|
||
Jessenia bataua, 181
|
||
Ricinodendron heudelotii, 257
|
||
Juglans cinerea, 186 Santalum acuminatum, 260, 261
|
||
Juglans regia, 194 Sapium sebiferum, 263
|
||
Lecythis pisonis, 202 Schleichera oleosa, 267
|
||
Macadamia integrifolia, 207 Sclerocarya caffra, 270
|
||
Madhuca longifolia, 211 Telfairia occidentalis, 276
|
||
Moringa oleifera, 215 Terminalia catappa, 282
|
||
Orbignya martiana, 225, 226 Treculia africana, 288
|
||
Pistacia vera, 240 Virola sebifera, 290
|
||
Pittosporum resinferum, 244 Virola surinamensis, 292
|
||
Prunus dulcis, 250
|
||
Oleodipalmitins, 76, 148, 211, 247, see also specific
|
||
Ricinodendron rautanenii, 258
|
||
types
|
||
Santalum acuminatum, 260, 261
|
||
Oleodisaturated glycerides, 76, see also specific
|
||
Sapium se bife rum, 263
|
||
types
|
||
Schleichera oleosa, 267 Oleopalmitostearins, 211, 247, see also specific types
|
||
Simmondsia chinensis, 273 Oleo-resin, 240
|
||
Telfairia occidentalis, 276 Olla de mona, see Lecythis ollaria
|
||
Treculia africana, 287 Orbignya cohune, 224
|
||
Olivine, see Telfairia pedata Orbignya martiana, 225— 228
|
||
Oiticica, see Licania rigida Orbignya oleifera, see Orbignya martiana
|
||
Ojuk nut, see Ricinodendron heudelotii Orbignya speciosa, see Orbignya martiana
|
||
Okwa, see Treculia africana Otaheite chestnut, see I nocarpus edulis
|
||
Olacaceae, 131— 132, see also specific species Owe cola, see Cola verticillata
|
||
Oleic acid Oxalic acid, 160
|
||
Acrocomia sclerocarpa, 1
|
||
Oxlate, 288
|
||
Acrocomia totai, 4
|
||
Oxoushinsunine, 219
|
||
Aleurites f ordii, 8 Oyster nut, see Telfairia occidentalis; Telfairia
|
||
Aleurites moluccana, 13 pedata
|
||
Aleurites montana, 14
|
||
Amphicarpaea bracteata, 17
|
||
Balanites aegyptiaca, 41
|
||
Bertholletia excelsa 44 Pachira aquatica, 229— 230
|
||
Buchanania lanzan, 58 Pahoo hadji, see Cycas rumphii
|
||
Butyrospermum paradoxum, 60 Pakis adji, see Cycas rumphii
|
||
Canarium indicum, 65 Pakoeine, 133
|
||
Carya illinoensis, 69, 70 Pakoo adji, see Cycas rumphii
|
||
Caryocar villosum, 76 Pakuri, see Platonia escalenta
|
||
Castanea sativa, 90 Palm
|
||
Ceiba pentandra, 97
|
||
betel-nut, see Areca catechu
|
||
Cocos nucifera, 102
|
||
black sugar, see Arenga pinnata
|
||
Cory lus avellana, 119
|
||
coco-, see Acrocomia totai
|
||
Coula edulis, 131
|
||
cohune, see Orbignya cohune
|
||
Cycas revoluta, 135
|
||
doum, see Hyphaene thebaica
|
||
Cyperus esculentus, 140 ivory nut, see Phytelephas macrocarpa
|
||
Cyperus rotundus, 142 nipa, see Nypa fruticans
|
||
Elaeis guineensis, 148 palmyra, see Borassus flabellifer
|
||
Elaeis oleifera, 152 sugar, see Arenga pinnata
|
||
Fagus sylvatica, 160 Palmae, 147— 151, see also specific species
|
||
Helianthus annuus, 169 Palmitic acid
|
||
Jatropha curcas, 178 Amphicarpaea bracteata, 17
|
||
Jessenia bataua, 181 Anacardium occidentales, 20
|
||
335
|
||
Balanites aegyptiaca, 41 Pecan, see Carya illinoensis
|
||
Bertholletia excelsa, 44 Pectin, 142, 250
|
||
Buchanania lanzan, 58 Pentosane, 160
|
||
Butyrospermum paradoxum, 60 Pentosans, 97, 164, 282, see also specific types
|
||
Canarium indicum, 65 Pequi, see Caryocar villosum
|
||
Carya illinoensis, 69, 70 Persian walnut, see Juglans regia
|
||
Caryocar villosum, 76 Pests, see specific types
|
||
Castanea saliva, 90 Petroleum nut, see Pittosporum resinferum
|
||
Ceiba pentandra, 97 Phellogenic acid, 253
|
||
Cocos nucifera, 102 Phellonic acid, 253
|
||
Corylus avellana, 119 Phenylalanine
|
||
Coula edulis, 131 Artocarpus altilis, 35
|
||
Cycas revoluta, 135 Bosimum alicastrum, 51
|
||
Cyperus esculentus, 140 Butyrospermum paradoxum, 60
|
||
Elaeis guineensis, 148 Cordeauxia edulis, 114
|
||
Elaeis oleifera, 152 Fagus sylvatica, 160
|
||
Fagus sylvatica, 160 Moringa oleifera, 2 15
|
||
Helianthus annuus, 169 Prunus dulcis, 250
|
||
Jatropha cureas, 178 Ricinodendron rautanenii, 258
|
||
Jug Ians regia, 194 Simmondsia chinensis, 273
|
||
Lecythis pisonis, 202 Terminalia calappa, 282
|
||
Licania rigida, 204 Philippine hanga, see Pittosporum resinferum
|
||
Macadamia integrifolia, 207 Philippine nut, see Canarium ovatum
|
||
Madhuca longifolia, 2 1 1 Phlobaphen, 253
|
||
Moringa oleifera, 215 Phloionic acid, 253
|
||
Pistacia vera, 241 Phloionolic acid, 253
|
||
Platonia esculenta, 247, 248 Phloracetophenone 2,4-dimethylether, 263
|
||
Prunus dulcis, 250 Phloroglucin, 69
|
||
Santalum acuminatum, 261 Phosphoric acid, 97, 164, 212, 267
|
||
Sapium sebiferum, 263 Phosphorus
|
||
Schleichera oleosa, 267 Acrocomia total, 3, 4
|
||
Telfairia occidentalis, 276 Aleurites moluccana, 12, 13
|
||
Telfairia pedata, 279 Anacardium occidentale, 20
|
||
Terminalia calappa, 282 Areca catechu, 27
|
||
Treculia africana, 288 Arenga pinnata, 31
|
||
Virola sebifera, 290 Artocarpus altilis, 35
|
||
Virola surinamensis, 292
|
||
Artocarpus heterophyllus, 37
|
||
Palmitodioleins, 76, 148, 211, 247, see also specific Balanites aegyptiaca, 41
|
||
types Bertholletia excelsa, 44
|
||
Palmitoleic acid, 207, 267 Borassus flabellifer, 47
|
||
Palm oil, 74, 76 Bosimum alicastrum, 50, 51
|
||
Palmyra palm, see Borassus flabellifer Buchanania lanzan, 58
|
||
Palo de vaca, see Brosimum utile Butyrospermum paradoxum, 59
|
||
Pamitic acid, 8 Calamus rotang, 62
|
||
Pana, see Artocarpus altilis Canarium ovatum, 67
|
||
Pantothenic acid, 211 Carya illinoensis, 69
|
||
Papayotin, 35
|
||
Castanea crenata, 80
|
||
Paraguay coco-palm, see Acrocomia total
|
||
Castanea mollissima, 85
|
||
Para nut, see Bertholletia excelsa Castanea sativa, 90
|
||
Ceiba pentandra, 97
|
||
Parasites, 99, 172, 213, 217, 239, see also specific
|
||
types Cocos nucifera, 101, 102
|
||
Parcouril, see Platonia esculenta Cola acuminata, 107
|
||
Parkeol, 60 Cordeauxia edulis, 114
|
||
Parry’s pine nut, see Pinus quadrifolia Corylus avellana, 119
|
||
Pataba, see Jessenia bataua Coula edulis, 131
|
||
Pataua, see Jessenia bataua Cyperus esculentus, 140
|
||
Paullinia cupana, 231— 232 Cyperus rotundas, 142
|
||
Paullinia sorbilis, see Paullinia cupana Detarium senegalense, 145
|
||
Pavettia, see Adhatoda vasica Elaeis guineensis, 148
|
||
Peach, native, see Santalum acuminatum Eleocharis dulcis, 154
|
||
Peanut, see Amphicarpaea bracteata Ginkgo biloba, 164
|
||
336 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
Helianthus annuus, 169 Castanea sativa, 90
|
||
Hyphaene thebaica, 174 Cocos nucífera, 102
|
||
Jug Ians nigra, 191 Corylus avellana, 119
|
||
Jug Ians regia, 194 Eleocharis dulcis, 154
|
||
Macadamia integrifolia, 207 Ginkgo biloba, 164
|
||
Madhuca longifolia, 2 1 1
|
||
Helianthus annuus, 169
|
||
Moringa oleifera, 215
|
||
Jug Ians nigra, 191
|
||
Nelumbo nucífera, 219
|
||
Juglans regia, 194
|
||
Pachira aquatica, 229 Macadamia integrifolia, 207
|
||
Pistacia vera, 240, 241 Nelumbo nucífera, 219
|
||
Prunus dulcís, 250 Pistacia vera, 240, 241
|
||
Sclerocarya cajfra, 270 Prunus dulcis, 250
|
||
Telfairia occidentalis, 276 Santalum acuminatum, 260
|
||
Telfairia pedata, 278, 279 Terminaba catappa, 282
|
||
Terminaba catappa, 282
|
||
Trapa natans, 285
|
||
Trapa natans, 285
|
||
Treculia africana, 288
|
||
Treculia africana, 287 Proanthocyanadine leucocyanadine, 20
|
||
Phosphorylase, 285 Procyanidin, 110
|
||
Physic nut, see Jatropha curcas Prolamine, 114, 282
|
||
Phytelephas macrocarpa, 234— 235 Prolamins, 35, see also specific types
|
||
Phytic acid, 194, 250 Proline, 35, 51, 160, 273, 282
|
||
Phytohemagglutinins, 114, see also specific types Pronuciferine, 219
|
||
Phytosterin, 133 Proteaceae, 207— 209, see also specific species
|
||
Phytosterols, 8, 69, 119, see also specific types
|
||
Proteins, see also specific types
|
||
Piauhy, see Platonia esculenta
|
||
Acrocomia total, 3, 4
|
||
Pigments, 37, see also specific types Aleurites moluccana, 12, 13
|
||
Pili nut, see Canarium ovatum Amphicarpaea bracteata, 17
|
||
Pinaceae, 236— 239, see also specific species Anacardium occidentale, 20
|
||
Pine, see Pinus edulis Apios americana, 23
|
||
Pinene, 244 Areca catechu, 26, 27
|
||
Pine nut, see Pinus edulis, Pinus quadrifolia Arenga pinnata, 31
|
||
Pinon, see Pinus edulis; Pinus quadrifolia Artocarpus altibs, 35
|
||
Pinus cembroides, see Pinus edulis Artocarpus heterophyllus, 37
|
||
Pinus edulis, 236— 237
|
||
Balanites aegyptiaca, 41
|
||
Pinus par rayana, see Pinus quadrifolia
|
||
Bertholletia excelsa, 44
|
||
Pinus quadrifolia, 238— 239 Borassus flabellifer, 47, 48
|
||
Pistachio, see Pistacia vera Bosimum abcastrum, 50, 51
|
||
Pistaciaceae, 240— 243, see also specific species Buchanania lanzan, 58
|
||
Pistacia oleosa, see Schleichera oleosa Butyrospermum paradoxum, 59, 60
|
||
Pistacia vera, 240— 243 Calamus rotang, 62
|
||
Pittosporaceae, 244— 246, see also specific species Canarium indicum, 65
|
||
Pittosporum resinferum, 244— 246
|
||
Canarium ovatum, 67
|
||
Platonia esculenta, 247— 248
|
||
Carya illinoensis, 69
|
||
Platonia insignis, see Platonia esculenta Castanea crenata, 80
|
||
Pleragina umbresissima, see Licania rigida Castanea dentata, 82
|
||
Polymerides, 253, see also specific types Castanea mollissima, 85
|
||
Polynesia chestnut, see ¡nocarpus edulis Castanea sativa, 90
|
||
Polyphenols, 142, see also specific types Castanospermum australe, 94
|
||
Potash, 97, 169, 212, 267
|
||
Ceiba pentandra, 97
|
||
Potassium
|
||
Cocos nucífera, 101, 102
|
||
Acrocomia total, 3, 4 Cola acuminata, 107, 108
|
||
Aleurites moluccana, 12 Cola nitida, 110
|
||
Amphicarpaea bracteata, 17 Cordeauxia edulis, 114
|
||
Anacardium occidentale, 20 Corylus americana, 116
|
||
Areca catechu, 27 Corylus avellana, 119
|
||
Arenga pinnata, 31 Coula edulis, 131
|
||
Artocarpus altilis, 35 Cycas revoluta, 135
|
||
Artocarpus heterophyllus, 37 Cyperus esculentus, 140
|
||
Bertholletia excelsa, 44 Cyperus rotundas, 142
|
||
Canarium ovatum, 67 Detarium senegalense, 145
|
||
Carya illinoensis, 69 Elaeis guineensis, 148
|
||
337
|
||
Eleocharis dulcís, 154 Resin
|
||
Fagas grandifolia, 158
|
||
Artocarpus heterophyllus, 37
|
||
Ginkgo biloba, 164 Bosimum alicastrum, 51
|
||
G ne turn gnemon, 166 Brosimum utile, 53
|
||
Helianthus annuus, 169 Ceiba pentandra, 97
|
||
Hyphaene thebaica, 174 Cyperus rotundas, 142
|
||
Inocarpus edulis, 175 Madhuca longifolia, 211, 212
|
||
Jatropha curcas, 178 Paullinia cupana, 232
|
||
Jessenia bataua, 181 Pistacia vera, 240
|
||
Juglans cinerea, 186
|
||
Ricinodendron heudelotii, 257
|
||
Juglans nigra, 191
|
||
Ricinodendron rautanenii, 258
|
||
Juglans regia, 194
|
||
Rhamnose, 20, 41, 160, 215
|
||
Lecythis pisonis, 202 Rhizome, 219
|
||
Licania rigida, 204 Rhizophoraceae, 55— 56, see also specific species
|
||
Macadamia integrifolia, 207 Riboflavin, see also Vitamin B
|
||
Madhuca longifolia, 211 Anacardium occidentale, 20
|
||
Moringa oleifera, 215 Areca catechu, 27
|
||
Nelumbo nucífera, 219 Arenga pianata, 31
|
||
Orbignya cohune, 224
|
||
Artocarpus altilis, 35
|
||
Orbignya martiana, 225, 226 Artocarpus heterophyllus, 37
|
||
Pachira aquatica, 229 Bertholletia excelsa, 44
|
||
Phytelephas macrocarpa, 234 Borassus flabellifer, 47
|
||
Pinus edulis, 236 Bosimum alicastrum, 50, 51
|
||
Pistacia vera, 240, 241 Calamus rotang, 62
|
||
Prunas dulcís, 250 Cañarium ovatum, 67
|
||
Ricinodendron rautanenii, 258 Carya illinoensis, 69
|
||
Santalum acuminatum, 260 Castanea crenata, 80
|
||
Sapium sebiferum, 263 Castanea mollissima, 85
|
||
Schleichera oleosa, 267
|
||
Castanea sativa, 90
|
||
Sclerocarya caffra, 270 Cocos nucífera, 102
|
||
Simmondsia chinensis, 273 Cola acuminata, 107, 108
|
||
Telfairia occidentalis, 276 Corylus avellana, 119
|
||
Telfairia pedata, 278, 279 Cyperus esculentus, 140
|
||
Terminaba catappa, 282 Cyperus rotundus, 142
|
||
Trapa natans, 285 Detarium senegalense, 145
|
||
Treculia africana, 287, 288 Elaeis guineensis, 148
|
||
Provision tree, see Pachira aquatica Eleocharis dulcís, 154
|
||
Prunas dulcís, 249— 252
|
||
Ginkgo biloba, 164
|
||
Pterygospermin, 215
|
||
Helianthus annuus, 169
|
||
Pumpkin, fluted, see Telfairia occidentalis Juglans nigra, 191
|
||
Purging nut, see Jatropha curcas Juglans regia, 194
|
||
Purple nutsedge, see Cyperus rotundas Macadamia inte grifo lia, 207
|
||
Pyroligenous acid, 97 Nelumbo nucífera, 219
|
||
Pachira aquatica, 229
|
||
Pistacia vera, 241
|
||
Prunus dulcís, 250
|
||
Quandong nut, see Santalum acuminatum
|
||
Sclerocarya caffra, 270
|
||
Quercetin, 35, 97, 160, 194, 219 Terminaba catappa, 282
|
||
Trecuba africana, 288
|
||
Quercetin-3-arabinoside, 194
|
||
Quercitrin, 194 Ribose, 41
|
||
Quercus occidentalis, see Quercus saber Ricinodendron africanum, see Ricinodendron
|
||
Quercus saber, 253— 255
|
||
heudelotii
|
||
Ricinodendron heudelotii, 256— 257
|
||
Ricinodendron rautanenii, 258— 259
|
||
R
|
||
Robinin, 219
|
||
Raffinose, 119, 124, 164, 178, 219 Roemerine, 219
|
||
Ramon, see Bosimum alicastrum Rosaceae, 204— 206, 249— 252, see also specific
|
||
Rattan cane, see Calamus rotang species
|
||
Red ucuuba, see Virola sebifera Rotang cane, see Calamus rotang
|
||
338 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
Rubidium, 44 Sitosterol glucoside, 41
|
||
Rutin, 219 Slippery cola, see Cola verticillata
|
||
Snakes, 49, 136
|
||
Soapberry tree, see Balanites aegyptiaca
|
||
Sodium
|
||
Saba nut, see Pachira aquatica Anacardium occidentale, 20
|
||
Saccharides, 142, see also specific types Areca catechu, 27
|
||
Saccharose, 178, 258 Arenga pianata, 31
|
||
Sacred lotus, see Nelumho nucífera Artocarpus altilis, 35
|
||
Salicylic acid, 142 Artocarpus heterophyllus, 37
|
||
Sanga nut, see Ricinodendron heudelotii Bertho llé tia excelsa, 44
|
||
Santalaceae, 260— 261, see also specific species Canarium ovatum, 67
|
||
Santalbic acid, 260 Carya illinoensis, 69
|
||
Santalbinic acid, 260 Castanea crenata, 80
|
||
Santalum acuminatum, 260— 261
|
||
Cocos nucífera, 102
|
||
Sapindaceae, 231— 232, 266— 268, see also specific Eleocharis dulcís, 154
|
||
species Ginkgo biloba, 164
|
||
Sapium sebiferum, 262— 265 Helianthus annuus, 169
|
||
Sapogenins, 41, see also specific types Juglans nigra, 191
|
||
Saponins, 8, 23, 160, 232, see also specific types Juglans regia, 194
|
||
Sapotaceae, 59— 61, 210— 213, see also specific Pachira aquatica, 229
|
||
species Prunus dulcís, 250
|
||
Sapucaia, see Lecythis pisonis Santalum acuminatum, 260
|
||
Saturated acids, 140, 169, see also specific types Trapa natans, 285
|
||
Schleichera oleosa, 266— 268 Treculia africana, 288
|
||
Schleichera trijuga, see Schleichera oleosa Sodium selenite, 45
|
||
Scirpus plantagineus, see Eleocharis dulcís
|
||
Sohnja, see Moringa oleifera
|
||
Scirpus plantaginoides, see Eleocharis dulcís
|
||
Sotesu nut, see Cycas revoluta
|
||
Scirpus tuberosus, see Eleocharis dulcís Spanish chestnut, see Castanea sativa
|
||
Sclerocarya caffra, 269— 271 Squalene, 69
|
||
Scorpions, 49 Stachyose, 124, 178, 219
|
||
Seje, see Jessenia bataua Starches, see also specific types
|
||
Selenium, 44, 200, 202 Anacardium occidentales, 20
|
||
Selenomethionine, 45 Apios americana, 23
|
||
Seliene, 142 Buchanania lanzan, 58
|
||
Sequoyitol, 133 Castanea dentata, 82
|
||
Serine, 35, 51, 114, 160, 273, 282 Cola acuminata, 108
|
||
Sesquiterpene, 211 Cola nitida, 110
|
||
Sesquiterpene alcohol, 211 Cordeauxia edulis, 114
|
||
Shea nut, see Butyrospermum paradoxum
|
||
Cycas circinalis, 133
|
||
Shikimic acid, 164, 241
|
||
Cycas revoluta, 135
|
||
Shikimin, 164
|
||
Cyperus esculentus, 140
|
||
Siberian filbert, see Corylus heterophylla Cyperus rotundus, 142
|
||
Siebold walnut, see Juglans ailanthifolia
|
||
Eleocharis dulcís, 154
|
||
Silica, 212, 253 Ginkgo biloba, 164
|
||
Silk cotton tree, see Ceiba pentandra Inocarpus edulis, 175
|
||
Silver pine, see Pinus edulis
|
||
Nypa fruticans, 222
|
||
Simarubaceae, 40— 42, see also specific species Orbignya martiana, 225
|
||
Simmondsia chinensis, 272— 275 Prunus dulcís, 250
|
||
Sinapic acid, 160
|
||
Ricinodendron rautanenii, 258
|
||
Sitosterol Trapa natans, 285
|
||
Anacardium accidéntale, 20 Stearic acid
|
||
Anacardium occidentales, 20 Aleurites fordii, 8
|
||
Balanites aegyptiaca, 41 Amphicarpaea bracteata, 17
|
||
Corylus avellana, 119 Anacardium occidentales, 20
|
||
Fagus sylvatica, 160 Balanites aegyptiaca, 41
|
||
Ginkgo biloba, 164 Bertholletia excelsa, 44
|
||
Jatropha curcas, 178 Buchanania lanzan, 58
|
||
Moringa oleífera, 215 Butyrospermum paradoxum, 60
|
||
Nelumbo nucífera, 219 Canarium indicum, 65
|
||
Virola sebifera, 290 Carya illinoensis, 69, 70
|
||
339
|
||
Caryocar villosum, 76 Hyphaene thebaica, 174
|
||
Ceiba pentandra, 97 Madhuca longifolia, 211
|
||
Cocos nucífera, 102 Nypa fruticans, 222
|
||
Orbignya martiana, 225
|
||
Corylus avellana, 119
|
||
Coula edulis, 131 Phytelephas macrocarpa, 235
|
||
Cyperus esculentus, 140 Pistacia vera, 240
|
||
Cyperus rotundas, 142 Prunus dulcis, 250
|
||
Elaeis guineensis, 148 Sclerocarya caffra, 270
|
||
Fagus sylvatica, 160 Terminalia catappa, 282
|
||
Helianthus annuus, 169 Sulfur, 194
|
||
Jatropha curcas, 178 Sunflower, see Helianthus annuus
|
||
Sweet chestnut, see Castanea dentata; Castanea
|
||
Lecythis pisonis, 202
|
||
sat iva
|
||
Licania rigida, 204
|
||
Macadamia integrifolia, 207
|
||
Madhuca longifolia, 211
|
||
Moringa oleifera, 215
|
||
Tagua, see Phytelephas macrocarpa
|
||
Pachira aquatica, 229
|
||
Pistacia vera, 241 Tahit chestnut, see I nocarpus edulis
|
||
Platonia esculenta, 247 Tallow tree, see Detarium senegalense; Sapium
|
||
Ricinodendron heudelotii, 257 sebiferum
|
||
Santalum acuminatum, 260 Tangkil, see Gnetum gnemon
|
||
Sapium sebiferum, 263 Tannic acid, 82, 108, 119, 160, 267
|
||
Schleichera oleosa, 267 Tannic glycosides, 110, see also specific types
|
||
Telfairia occidentalis, 276 Tannins, see also specific types
|
||
Telfairia pedata, 279 Acrocomia sclerocarpa, 1
|
||
Terminaba catappa, 282 Aleurites fordii, 8
|
||
Aleurites moluccana, 13
|
||
Treculia africana, 288
|
||
Apios americana, 23
|
||
Stearins, 253, see also specific types
|
||
Areca catechu, 26
|
||
Stearodioleins, 211, 247, see also specific types
|
||
Artocarpus heterophyllus, 37
|
||
Stearodipalmitin, 76
|
||
Sterculia acuminata, see Cola acuminata Bruguiera gymnorhiza, 55
|
||
Sterculiaceae, 107— 113, see also specific species Buchanania lanzan, 58
|
||
Sterculia verticilata, see Cola verticillata Carya illinoensis, 69
|
||
Steroids, 41, 253, see also specific types Castanea dentata, 82
|
||
Steroketone artosternone, 37 Ceiba pentandra, 97
|
||
Sterols, 164, see also specific types Fagus sylvatica, 160
|
||
Stigmasterol, 178 Licania rigida, 204
|
||
Stillingia sebifera, see Sapium sebiferum Madhuca longifolia, 211
|
||
Strontium, 44 Nypa fruticans, 222
|
||
Suari nut, see Caryocar nuciferum Pachira aquatica, 229
|
||
Paullinia cupana, 232
|
||
Suberin, 253
|
||
Pistacia vera, 240, 241
|
||
Suberindiol, 253
|
||
Prunus dulcis, 250
|
||
Succinic acid, 211
|
||
Quercus súber, 253
|
||
Sucrose, 119, 164,211,222
|
||
Sapium sebiferum, 263
|
||
Sugar palm, see Arenga pinnata
|
||
Sugars, see also specific types Schleichera oleosa, 267
|
||
Acrocomia totai, 3, 4 Sclerocarya caffra, 270
|
||
Anacardium occidentale, 20 Telfairia pedata, 279
|
||
Trapa natans, 285
|
||
Anacardium occidentales, 20
|
||
Tar, 97
|
||
Borassus flabellifer, 47, 48
|
||
Tarxerol, 119
|
||
Bosimum alicastrum, 51
|
||
Telfairia nuts, see Telfairia pedata
|
||
Brosimum utile, 53
|
||
Telfairia occidentalis, 276— 277
|
||
Buchanania lanzan, 58
|
||
Telfairia pedata, 278— 280
|
||
Cola acuminata, 108
|
||
Terminalia catappa, 281— 283
|
||
Cola nitida, 110
|
||
Termites, 95, 132, 146
|
||
Cordeauxia edulis, 114
|
||
Cycas circinalis, 133 Terpenes, 65, see also specific types
|
||
Cyperus rotundus, 142 Terpineol, 211
|
||
Eleocharis dulcís, 154 Tetracosanol, 160
|
||
Fagus sylvatica, 160 Theobromine, 108, 110, 232
|
||
Ginkgo biloba, 164 Theophylline, 6, 232
|
||
340 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
Thiamine, see also Vitamin B Bertholletia excelsa, 45
|
||
Aleurites moluccana, 13 Borassus flabellifer, 48
|
||
Anacardium occidentale, 20 Bruguiera gymnorhiza, 55
|
||
Areca catechu, 27 Calamus rotang, 62
|
||
Artocarpus altilis, 35 Carya illinoensis, 70
|
||
Artocarpus heterophyllus, 37 Castanospermum australe, 94
|
||
Bertholletia excelsa, 44 Ceiba pentandra, 97
|
||
Borassus flabellifer, 47 Cola acuminata, 108
|
||
Bosimum alicastrum, 50, 51 Coula edulis, 131
|
||
Butyrospermum paradoxum, 60
|
||
Cycas circinabs, 133
|
||
Calamus rotang, 62
|
||
Cyperus esculentus, 140
|
||
Canarium ovatum, 67 Detarium senegalense, 146
|
||
Carya illinoensis, 69 Fagus grandifolia, 158
|
||
Castanea crenata, 80 Fagus sylvatica, 160
|
||
Castanea mollissima, 85 Ginkgo biloba, 164
|
||
Castanea sativa, 90 Gnetum gnemon, 166
|
||
Cocos nucifera, 102 Jatropha curcas, 178
|
||
Cola acuminata, 107, 108 Juglans cinerea, 186
|
||
Corylus avellana, 119 Jug Ians nigra, 191
|
||
Cyperus esculentus, 140 Lecythis minor, 198
|
||
Cyperus rotundus, 142 Lecythis ollaria, 200
|
||
Detarium senegalense, 145 Madhuca longifoba, 212
|
||
Elaeis guineensis, 148 Orbignya cohune, 224
|
||
Eleocharis dulcis, 154 Paulbnia cupana, 232
|
||
Ginkgo biloba, 164 Quercus súber, 254
|
||
Helianthus annuus, 169 Ricinodendron rautanenii, 258
|
||
Inocarpus edulis, 175 Schleichera oleosa, 267
|
||
Jug Ians nigra, 191 Sclerocarya caffra, 270
|
||
Jug Ians regia, 194 Simmondsia chinensis, 273
|
||
Macadamia integrifolia, 207 Trecuba africana, 288
|
||
Nelumbo nucifera, 219 Trapaceae, 284— 286, see also specific species
|
||
Pachira aquatica, 229 Trapa natans, 284— 286
|
||
Pistacia vera, 240, 241 Trecuba africana, 287— 289
|
||
Prunus dulcis, 250 Triacosan, 119
|
||
Sclerocarya caffra, 270 Triadica sebifera, see Sapium sebiferum
|
||
Terminaba catappa, 282 Tribydroxystigmasterol, 119
|
||
Trapa natans, 285 Trimethy lamine, 160
|
||
Treculia africana, 288 Triolein, 58
|
||
Threonine Tripalmitin, 76, 148, 247
|
||
Tristearin, 76
|
||
Artocarpus altilis, 35
|
||
Bosimum alicastrum, 51 Triterpene, 263
|
||
Cordeauxia edulis, 114 Tropical almond, see Terminaba catappa
|
||
Fagus sylvatica, 160 Tryptophane
|
||
Moringa oleifera, 215 Bosimum alicastrum, 51
|
||
Ricinodendron rautanenii, 258 Butyrospermum paradoxum, 60
|
||
Simmondsia chinensis, 273 Ginkgo biloba, 164
|
||
Terminaba catappa, 282 Jessenia bataua, 181
|
||
Tibetan filbert, see Corylus ferox Juglans nigra, 191
|
||
Tigemut, see Cyperus esculentus Moringa oleifera, 215
|
||
Timbonine, 232 Prunus dulcis, 250
|
||
Tin, 44 Ricinodendron rautanenii, 258
|
||
Titanium, 45 Simmondsia chinensis, 273
|
||
Tocophenol, 169, 250 Terminaba catappa, 282
|
||
Tocopherol, see Vitamin E Tung-oil tree, see Aleurites f ordii
|
||
Toxicity Turkish filbert, see Corylus colurna
|
||
Adhatoda vasica, 6 Turkish hazelnut, see Corylus colurna
|
||
Aleurites ford H, 8 Tyrosine, 35, 51, 114, 160, 263, 273, 282
|
||
Aleurites moluccana, 13
|
||
Aleurites montana, 14
|
||
u
|
||
Anacardium occidentale, 20
|
||
Areca catechu, 27 Uabano, see Paulbnia cupana
|
||
341
|
||
Ucahuba nut, see Virola surinamensis
|
||
Cycas rumphii, 137
|
||
Ucuuba, see Virola schiferà; Virola surinamensis Cyp er US esculentus, 139
|
||
Ukwa, see Treculia africana Cyperus rotundus, 142
|
||
Unsaturated acids, 140, see also specific types Detarium senegalense, 145
|
||
Ureides, 23, see also specific types Elaeis guineensis, 147— 148
|
||
Uric acid, 23 Elaeis oleifera, 152
|
||
Uronic anhydrides, 97 Eleocharis dulcís, 154
|
||
Uses Fagus grandifolia, 157
|
||
Acrocomia sclerocarpa, 1
|
||
Fagus sylvatica, 160
|
||
Acrocomia totai, 3 Ginkgo biloba, 163
|
||
Adhatoda vasica, 5 Gnetum gnemon, 166
|
||
Aleurites fordii, 8 Helianthus annuus, 168
|
||
Aleurites moluccana, 12 Hyphaene thehaica, 173
|
||
Aleurites montana, 14 I nocarpus edulis, 175
|
||
Amphicarpaea hracteata, 16 Jatropha curcas, 177
|
||
Anacardium occidentale, 19 Jessenia hataua, 180
|
||
Apios americana, 22 Juglans ailanthifolia, 184
|
||
Areca catechu, 26 Juglans cinerea, 186
|
||
Arenga pinnata, 30 Juglans hindsii, 189
|
||
Artocarpus altilis, 34 Juglans nigra, 190
|
||
Artocarpus heterophyllus, 37 Juglans regia, 194
|
||
Balanites aegyptiaca, 40— 41 Lecythis minor, 198
|
||
Barringtonia procera, 43 Lecythis ollaria, 200
|
||
Bertholletia excelsa, 44 Lecythis pisonis, 202
|
||
Borassus flabellifer, 47 Licania rigida, 204
|
||
Bosimum alicastrum, 50 Macadamia integrifolia, 207
|
||
Brosimum utile, 53 Madhuca longifolia, 210
|
||
Bruguiera gymnorhiza, 55 Moringa oleifera, 2 1A— 215
|
||
Buchanania lanzan, 57 Nelumbo nucífera, 218
|
||
Butyrospermum paradoxum, 59 Nypa fruticans, 222
|
||
Calamus rotang, 62 Orbignya cohune, 224
|
||
Cañarium indicum, 65 Orbignya martiana, 225
|
||
Canarium ovatum, 67 Pachira aquatica, 229
|
||
Carya illinoensis, 69 Paullinia cupana, 231
|
||
Caryocar amygdaliferum, 73 Phytelephas macrocarpa, 234
|
||
Caryocar nuciferum, 74 Pinus edulis, 236
|
||
Caryocar villosum, 75 Pinus quadrifolia, 238
|
||
Caryodendron orinocense, 78 Pistacia vera, 240
|
||
Castanea crenata, 80 Pittosporum resinferum, 244
|
||
Castanea dentata, 82 Platonia esculenta, 241
|
||
Castanea mollissima, 85 Prunus dulcís, 249
|
||
Castanea pumila, 88 Quercus súber, 253
|
||
Castanea sativa, 90 Ricinodendron heudelotii, 256
|
||
Castanospermum australe, 93 Ricinodendron rautanenii, 258
|
||
Ceiba pentandra, 96 Santalum acuminatum, 260
|
||
Cocos nucífera, 100— 101 Sapium sebiferum, 262
|
||
Cola acuminata, 107 Schleichera oleosa, 266
|
||
Cola nitida, 110 Sclerocarya coffra, 269
|
||
Cola verticillata, 113 Simmondsia chinensis, 272— 273
|
||
Cordeauxia edulis, 114 Telfairia occidentalis, 276
|
||
Corylus americana, 116 Telfairia pedata, 278
|
||
Corylus avellana, 119 Terminano catappa, 281
|
||
Corylus chinensis, 123 Trapa notons, 284
|
||
Corylus colurna, 124 Treculia africana, 287
|
||
Corylus cornuta, 126 Virola sebifera, 290
|
||
Corylus ferox, 128 Virola surinamensis, 292
|
||
Corylus heterophylla, 129
|
||
Corylus maxima, 130
|
||
Coula edulis, 131
|
||
Valine
|
||
Cycas circinalis, 133
|
||
Bosimum alicastrum, 51
|
||
Cycas revoluta, 135
|
||
342 Handbook of Nuts
|
||
Butyrospermum paradoxum, 60 Wood-oil tree, see Aleurites montana
|
||
Cordeauxia edulis, 114
|
||
Fagus sylvatica, 160
|
||
Moringa oleifera, 215
|
||
Xanthine, 232
|
||
Prunus dulcis, 250
|
||
Ricinodendron rautanenii, 258 Xanthophyll, 276
|
||
Xanthoxylin, 263
|
||
Sapium sebiferum, 263
|
||
Xylan, 119, 164
|
||
Simmondsia chinensis, 273
|
||
Terminalia catappa, 282 Xylose, 20, 41, 135, 160, 215, 250
|
||
Vanillic acid, 160 Xylosidase, 94
|
||
Vanillin, 253
|
||
Vanilloside, 160
|
||
Varnish tree, see Aleurites moluccana
|
||
Vasakin, 6 Yamogenin, 41
|
||
Vasicine, 6 Yeheb nut, see Cordeauxia edulis
|
||
Yellow nutsedge, see Cyperus esculentus
|
||
Vasicinine, 6
|
||
Vasicinol, 6 Yields
|
||
Vasicinone, 6 Acrocomia sclerocarpa, 2
|
||
Vasicoline, 6 Acrocomia totai, 3
|
||
Vasicolinone, 6 Adhatoda vasica, 1
|
||
Vegetable tallow, see Sapium sebiferum Aleurites f ordii, 10
|
||
Virola nut, see Virola sebifera Aleurites moluccana, 13
|
||
Virola sebifera, 290— 291 Aleurites montana, 15
|
||
Amphicarpaea bracteata, 18
|
||
Virola surinamensis, 292
|
||
Anacardium occidentale, 21
|
||
Viruses, 25, 99, 106, 141, 143, 172, 185, 252
|
||
Vitamin A, 26, 148, 215, 241, 285 Apios americana, 25
|
||
Vitamin B, 215, 263, see also Folic acid; Riboflavin; Areca catechu, 28— 29
|
||
Thiamine Arenga pinnata, 32
|
||
Vitamin C, see Ascorbic acid Artocarpus altilis, 36
|
||
Vitamin E, 148, 169, 215 Artocarpus heterophyllus, 38
|
||
Vitamins, see specific types Balanites aegyptiaca, 42
|
||
Vitexin, 178 Barringtonia procera, 43
|
||
Bertholletia excelsa, 45
|
||
Borassus flabellifer, 49
|
||
w
|
||
Bosimum alicastrum, 52
|
||
Walnut, see Aleurites moluccana Brosimum utile, 54
|
||
African, see Coula edulis Bruguiera gymnorhiza, 56
|
||
California, see Juglans hindsii Buchanania lanzan, 58
|
||
Carpathian, see Juglans regia Butyrospermum paradoxum, 61
|
||
eastern black, see Juglans nigra Calamus rotang, 63— 64
|
||
English, see Juglans regia Cañarium indicum, 66
|
||
Canarium ovatum, 68
|
||
Hind’s black, see Juglans hindsii
|
||
Carya illinoensis, 71
|
||
Japanese, see Juglans ailanthifolia
|
||
Caryocar amygdaliferum, 73
|
||
Persian, see Juglans regia
|
||
Caryocar nuciferum, 74
|
||
Siebold, see Juglans ailanthifolia
|
||
Caryocar villosum, 11
|
||
white, see Juglans cinerea
|
||
Wanepala, see Adhatoda vasica
|
||
Caryodendron orinocense, 79
|
||
Water caltrops, see Trapa natans Castanea crenata, 81
|
||
Castanea dentata, 84
|
||
Water chestnut, see Eleocharis dulcis; Trapa natans
|
||
Watemut, see Eleocharis dulcis Castanea mollissima, 87
|
||
Wax berry, white, see Sapium sebiferum Castanea pumila, 89
|
||
Waxes, 51, 53, 97, 135, 160, 253, 273, see also Castanea sativa, 92
|
||
specific types Castanospermum australe, 94— ^95
|
||
Weevils, 87, 115, 118, 127, 151 Ceiba pentandra, 99
|
||
White ucuuba, see Virola surinamensis Cocos nucifera, 105
|
||
White walnut, see Juglans cinerea Cola acuminata, 109
|
||
White wax berry, see Sapium sebiferum Cola nitida, 111
|
||
Wild mammee, see Platonia esculenta Cola verticillata, 113
|
||
Wild peanut, see Amphicarpaea bracteata Cordeauxia edulis, 115
|
||
Woman’s coconut, see Borassus flabellifer Corylus americana, 118
|
||
343
|
||
Cory lus avellana, 121 Madhuca longifolia, 213
|
||
Corylus chinensis, 123 Moringa oleifera, 216
|
||
Corylus caluma, 125 Nelumbo nucífera, 221
|
||
Nypa fruticans, 223
|
||
Corylus cornuta, 127
|
||
Corylus ferox, 128 Orbignya cohune, 224
|
||
Corylus heterophylla, 129 Orbignya martiana, 227
|
||
Corylus maxima, 130 Pachira aquatica, 230
|
||
Coula edulis, 132 Paullinia cupana, 233
|
||
Cycas circinalis, 134 Phytelephas macrocarpa, 235
|
||
Cycas revoluta, 136 Pinus edulis, 237
|
||
Cycas rumphii, 138 Pinus quadrifolia, 238
|
||
Cyperus esculentus, 141 Pistacia vera, 242
|
||
Pittosporum resinferum, 245
|
||
Cyperus rotundus, 143
|
||
Platonia esculenta, 248
|
||
Detarium senegalense, 146
|
||
Elaeis guineensis, 150 Prunus dulcis, 251
|
||
Elaeis oleifera, 153 Quercus súber, 255
|
||
Eleocharis dulcis, 155 Ricinodendron heudelotii, 257
|
||
Fagus grandifolia, 159 Ricinodendron rautanenii, 259
|
||
Fagus sylvatica, 161 Santalum acuminatum, 261
|
||
Ginkgo biloba, 165 Sapium sebiferum, 264
|
||
Gnetum gnemon, 167 Schleichera oleosa, 268
|
||
Helianthus annuus, 170— 171 Sclerocarya caffra, 271
|
||
Hyphaene thebaica, 174 Simmondsia chinensis, 274— 275
|
||
Telfairia occidentalis, 277
|
||
Inocarpus edulis, i l 6
|
||
Jatropha tur cas, 179 Telfairia pedata, 280
|
||
Jessenia bataua, 182 Terminaba catappa, 283
|
||
Juglans ailanthifolia, 185 Trapa natans, 286
|
||
Juglans cinerea, 187 Treculia africana, 289
|
||
Juglans hindsii, 189 Virola sebifera, 291
|
||
Juglans nigra, 192— 193 Virola surinamensis, 292
|
||
Juglans regia, 196 Ytterbium, 45
|
||
Lecythis minor, 199
|
||
Lecythis ollaria, 201
|
||
Lecythis pisonis, 203
|
||
Licania rigida, 206 Zanzibar oilvine, see Telfairia pedata
|
||
Macadamia integrifolia, 209 Zinc, 17, 44, 194, 260, 288
|